I have noted before that the Torah as a whole follows a pattern of narrative, poetry, epilogue. Genesis follows this pattern. Exo-Num follows this pattern. And Deuteronomy follows this pattern. Before each of the key poems the Hebrew text uses the word "aharith" (Gen 49:1, Num 24:14, and Deut 31:29). Thus Deut 1-31 has narrative, Deut 32:1-47 is poetry, and Deut 32:48-52 is the epilogue. This is a very fitting ending for Deuteronomy. But then Deuteronomy adds another poem (Deut 33) and epilogue (Deut 34) written from a later perspective (after prophecy has ceased because it says, "there has not arisen a prophet since in Israel like Moses, whom YHWH knew face to face..." (Deut 34:10ff). The other big textual clue to a later date for this section is the phrase "but no one knows the place of his burial to this day" (Deut 34:6). To what day? Much later.

I have written about some of the themes and agendas of this additional poem and epilogue in my post The Way of Wisdom: The Canon and Cessation. As I said there, the extra poem and epilogue are Scripture (fully the word of God as well as of this editor). And one of the things that Sailhamer notes in his book cited there, if I remember correctly, is that the additional poem reflects the poem of Gen 49 but you can see its distinctive emphases by comparing the two poems. The one big difference is the additional emphasis on the tribe of Levi in this poem in Deuteronomy because the wisdom teachers of Scripture were Levites.

So the big picture of the structure is [prologue,] narrative, poetry, epilogue, poetry, epilogue. It is also worth noting that the narrative is a series of speeches. The first speech is Deut 1:6-4:40, the second is Deut 5:1-28:68, the third is Deut 29:1-30:20, and the fourth is Deut 31:1-8. Deut 1:1-5 are introducing the speeches and the first speech in particular, Deut 5:1a is a brief introduction to the second speech, Deut 29:1-2a is a brief introduction to the third speech, and a fourth speech is introduced in Deut 31:1-2a, with a brief intro in Deut 31:7 to the rest of the speech. The effect of these introductions is to put the speeches in a narrative context much like the same for the laws back in Leviticus. Deut 31:9 then continues the narrative where the emphasis is on passing on Deuteronomy to future generations (a concern of the editor too). And the narrative transitions to introducing the first poem-song.

The reason I said above that the structure is best described as prologue, narrative, poetry, epilogue, poetry, epilogue is because Deut 1:1-5 can be understood as a prologue or preamble to the book. This is a more elaborate form of the narrative, poetry, epilogue pattern in Torah that we saw in some books in Genesis. Calling it a prologue or preamble actually opens the door for beginning to note that the structure of the book actually resembles a Hittite covenant-treaty format. Thus the preamble of the treaty is Deut 1:1-5, the historical prologue is the first speech (Deut 1:6-4:40 plus the narrative that follows Deut 4:41-49), the covenant stipulations (Deut 5:1-26:19) and sanctions (Deut 27:1-30:20) are laid out in the second and third speeches. And the rest of the book also has elements easily identified with normal parts of such a treaty. We saw before that Leviticus 18 and more loosely the whole Holiness Code of Leviticus also follow this pattern. Looking at Deuteronomy this way is the approach of Meredith Kline and is a very helpful observation.

Noting the prominence of speeches or sermons in the book highlights the Hebrew title based on the opening words of Deuteronomy, "These are the words."

Labels: deuteronomy, torah, treaty

As earlier posts make clear, the canonical order of the books of Scripture makes a difference in how we read them. Thus I want to explore the effect of Deuteronomy's position in the Torah as the last book without repeating observations made in previous posts like Old and New Testament Torah, Prophets & Writings and The Way of Wisdom: The Canon and Cessation. If you have not read those posts, please do so before continuing with this one.

Simply put, the effect of putting Deuteronomy last is to make it the most important. This is reflected in later Scripture. For example, whenever the Prophets refer to Torah (or the longer form 'Torah of Moses') they are referring not to the canonical designation for Genesis through Deuteronomy but they are referring to the Book of Deuteronomy. The late Al Groves researched each of these references to "Torah" and concluded that every one of them was a reference to Deuteronomy. Moreover, the most quoted book of the Torah in the New Testament is Deuteronomy.

But it is actually a little more complicated than this. Deuteronomy shows us the shift from the spoken Torah of Moses to the written Torah of Moses. As noted elsewhere, not every word of the written Torah of Moses was written by Moses. In fact, the written Torah of Moses was undoubtedly edited later, has an updated vocabulary throughout, and has the extra poem and epilogue telling us about the death of Moses written from the standpoint of the cessation of prophecy. On the updated vocabulary Pete Enns notes as he reflects on the comments of an unnamed Old Testament scholar: "The specific point concerned the state of Hebrew in the 2nd millennium BC, and how no one living at that time (i.e., Moses) could have written the Pentateuch as we know it, as it reflects a state of Hebrew that did not develop until the 1st millennium" (see II). But for our purposes here, the effect is to highlight the editor(s)' comments and especially the editor(s)' conclusion. This is fitting for the gospel genre because the NT Torah was not written down by Jesus and so you will see this similarity between Deuteronomy and Matthew-John. Deuteronomy is most like John because it assumes you know the story (a point that I could develop further).

This same effect is observable in the Hebrew Scriptures as a whole because the Prophets interpret Torah and show more acts of God and then the Writings interpret the Torah and Prophets. Likewise in the New Testament as particularly the epistles (writings) interpret the significance of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (gospels, NT Torah) and the giving of the Spirit on Pentecost (Acts, NT Prophets). Each Torah is foundational to the rest and so it is most important in that respect. Though no Christian would dispute that the effect of the Gospels coming later makes them more important. In the Old Testament, it is also clear that God spoke to Moses face to face but to the later prophets and especially to the writers this revelation becomes increasingly indirect. But we cannot underestimate the impact for those living just before and at the time of Christ to have the canon in this order. It was the Writings that showed you how to interpret the written Torah for your new situation.

We see this even in the Torah because what Deuteronomy does is show us the torah (instruction) adapted to a new generation. There are a variety of inconsistencies between the laws found earlier and found in Deuteronomy (many of which simply reflect a later situation, this cannot be said of all the differences). McConville notes in his commentary in the AOTC series that Deuteronomy is concerned to apply torah (instruction of Moses) to not only the Moab generation but also to all generations (cf. p.136). The point being that the book is concerned for transmission of the Decalogue and all the torah (instruction including law and history) of the Torah to future generations. As Deuteronomy itself demonstrates, this transmission requires teaching and interpretation (concerns highlighted by the editor of Deuteronomy who promotes the priests as teachers of written Torah).

So in summary the effect of Deuteronomy being the last book of the Torah is to make the equation of Deuteronomy and Torah. That is, Torah = Deuteronomy. And to emphasize that the Torah must be taught and interpreted for every new generation by wisdom teachers. Thus the spoken words of Moses are not nearly as important, even though the book consists of three major speeches, as the written book of Deuteronomy. And so we should pay careful attention and highlight any comments made by the editor(s) as we proceed through our investigation of this Torah especially noting his fascination with giants (something I remember Al Groves noting).

As a final point for now, just as when you read the New Testament and find the end of the story and then go back and re-read the Old Testament to see how it points to the end, you should also re-read the whole Torah from Genesis to Numbers after you have read Deuteronomy. Deuteronomy is inviting you to do this. It is assuming that you know the story of Numbers in particular and is encouraging you to read it again. But it is also inviting you to compare the Decalogue in Exodus with the new presentation in Deuteronomy and so forth. May this observation keep you studying Torah in a loop so long as you keep seeing the one who is its subject: Jesus Christ.

Labels: canon, deuteronomy, gospel genre, prophets, torah, writings

The epilogue to Exodus-Numbers began with Num 24:25. This long epilogue is fitting for such a long narrative. And it tells for us the story of the second generation in the wilderness. We seen the holy jealousy of Phinehas, son of Eleazar the priest, for the true God of Israel. And now we are going to see that he is representative of the whole generation.

First we have a new census and it should be noted that instead of YHWH speaking to Moses and Aaron He is now speaking to Moses and Eleazar (Aaron's son) the priest (Num 26:1). This census is again for those 20 years old and up who are able to go to war (i.e. again it will not include Levi) (Num 26:2). The order of the census by tribe was Reuben, Simeon, Gad, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Manasseh, Ephraim, Benjamin, Dan, Asher, and Naphtali. This is the same order of the census in Numbers 1 where Gad was promoted to prepare for the placement of the tribes around the tabernacle, except for the order of Manasseh and Ephraim. I now instinctively look at the order and try to discover why.

Within the census data there is some commentary. First, after numbering Reuben there are comments made about Dathan and Abiram and their children who rebelled with Korah and were swallowed by the earth together with Korah (but apparently not Korah's children (Num 26:9-11). So this commentary looks backwards. There is a second comment made regarding Judah's sons Er and Onan (Num 26:19, cf. Gen 46:12, 38:7, 10). Third, the census tells us about Zelophehad who had no sons but did have daughters and the text even gives us the names of these daughters, which is very unusual (Num 26:32, only cf. Num 26:46). So the reversal of Ephraim and Manasseh highlights this comment and prepares us to look forward for the following events.

It is worth looking at the numbers in Numbers 26. The format of these refections is to note the number in this chapter compared to (::) the number in the census in chapter 1. Reuben (43,730 :: 46,500), Simeon (22,200 :: 59,300), Gad (40,500, :: 45,650), Judah (76,500 :: 74,600), Issachar (64,300 :: 54,400), Zebulun (60,500 :: 57,400), Manasseh (52,700 :: 32,200) Ephraim (32,500 :: 40,500), Benjamin (45,600 :: 35,400), Dan (64,400 :: 62,700), Asher (53,400 :: 41,500), Naphtali (45,400 :: 53,400). And the total is 601,730 compared to 603,550. The total shows us that the nation has almost recovered in size despite the death of most of the previous generation.

Looking at the numbers reveals a quite surprising pattern (though I guess I should no longer be surprised by things like this, perhaps I am surprised because I notice these things without a commentary showing me). South of the tabernacle: Reuben, Simeon, and Gad are all smaller. The coveted dwelling place east of the tabernacle: Judah, Issachar and Zebulun are all larger. West of the tabernacle: Manasseh is larger, Ephraim is smaller, and Benjamin is larger. And to the north: Dan and Asher are larger and Naphtali is smaller. Judah is still the largest (still even exceeding Ephraim plus Manasseh). By now you too can draw some conclusions from these observations. Moreover, the size of their inheritance is related to the number in this census (Num 26:53-54).

After this there is a new list of the Levites by clan. It notes many of the same things noted earlier in Numbers like the death of Nadab and Abihu (Num 3:4, 26:61, cf. Lev 10:1) and the fact that they were not listed in the census because they have no inheritance (Num 18:20, 23, 24, 26:62). The text also mentions Miriam (Num 26:59). The total male Levites one month old and up was 23,000 (Num 26:62) compared to 22,000 (Num 3:39).

By way of inclusio, the passage ends mentioning Moses and Eleazar the priest and the setting of the plains of Moab by the Jordan opposite Jericho. And mentioning the previous census the author makes it clear that only Caleb and Joshua were counted in both -- everyone else from the earlier census died in the wilderness (Num 26:64-65).

As mentioned before, we were prepared by the order of the census for the story of the daughters of Zelophehad that follows. We see their faith in approaching Eleazar the priest for their father's portion of the inheritance. Appropriately given the other major commentary in the census, they note that their father did not die in the company of Korah but "for his own sin" (Num 27:3). We see them concerned for the name of their father (Num 27:4). And YHWH set down a statute and a rule for the people of Israel that their father's inheritance would go to his daughters and also setting forward the inheritance principles when there is no children at all.

Next we pick back up where we left off with the death of Aaron. YHWH tells Moses to go up into Abarim mountain and see the Promised Land and when he sees it "you shall be gathered to your people, as your brother Aaron was, because you rebelled against my word in the wilderness of Zin when the congregation quarreled, failing to uphold me as holy at the waters before their eyes" (Num 27:13-14). So that there is no confusion it is added: "These are the waters of Meribah of Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin" (Num 27:14). And Moses asks for God to appoint a man to lead Israel so that they "may not be as sheep that have no shepherd" (Num 27:17). And YHWH appointed Joshua "in whom is the Spirit" and Moses ordained him (Num 27:18-23). Moses' death then is on hold so that Joshua can be established as having some of Moses' authority before Moses dies.

Next Moses describes daily offerings (Num 28:1-8), weekly offerings on the Sabbath (Num 28:9-10), monthly offerings to begin each month (Num 28:11-15), and yearly offerings for Passover and the feast of unleavened bread (Num 28:16-25), for the Feast of Weeks (Num 28:26-31), for the Festival of Trumpets (Num 29:1-6), the Day of Atonement (Num 29:7-11), the Feast of Booths/Tabernacles (Num 29:12-38). This is a religious calendar following the same pattern as the one in Lev 23. The following chapter deals with vows (Num 30:1-16).

The epilogue continues the story of the death of Moses with "Avenge the people of Israel on the Midianites. Afterward you shall be gathered to your people" (Num 31:2). With Phinehas, twelve thousand, a thousand from each tribe, went to war against the Midianites in Moab and also killed Balaam the son of Beor. Ultimately only the women who had never had sex were spared (Num 31:16-18, 31:35). There were no casualties among the men of Israel who went to war (Num 31:49). The passage lays out clearly what spoil went to YHWH's treasury and the Levites and what went to the warriors and the congregation.

Next we see the tribes of Reuben and Gad request to take possession of the land they were in rather than going across the Jordan. Moses was not pleased and recited the story about the spies. But Reuben and Gad promised to fight to secure the inheritance beyond the Jordan for the other tribes if they could possess the land of Gilead and Jazer. And Moses agreed. Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh received the kingdoms of Sihon and Og and built cities to protect their young and livestock while they went to war for the other tribes.

Num 33:1-49 recounts the journey of Israel from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Then Moses told the people to destroy the idols and high places in Canaan and that they would inherit the land by lots according to their size. And he warns, "But if you do not drive out the inhabitants of the land from before you, then those of them whom you let remain shall be as barbs in your eyes and thorns in your sides, and they shall trouble you in the land where you dwell. And I will do to you [YHWH says] as I thought to do to them" (Num 33:55-56). Then YHWH told them the borders of the land (Num 34:1-15).

One chief from each tribe was to divide the inheritance in addition to Joshua and Eleazar the priest. The order of the tribes listed is Judah, Simeon, Benjamin, Dan, Manasseh, Ephraim, Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, and Naphtali. Glancing at a map suggests that these are roughly in order from south to north where the tribes will be in the Promised Land. Simeon's borders are within Judah. Reuben and Gad have already received their whole inheritance and Num 35:1-8 provides for Levitical cities (including cities of refuge (three in the land where Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh have inherited) Num 35:9-34 and further explaining their purpose and the death penalty for murder. These cities of refuge protected those who unintentionally killed another Israelite from the normal ANE custom of the avenger of blood. This is an appropriate discussion to have here since blood defiles and pollutes the land (Num 35:33-34).

In the final chapter, in order to preserve the before-mentioned inheritances Moses agreed with the people of Manasseh that the daughters of Zelophehad had to marry within the tribe so that the land would remain Manasseh's inheritance. And the chapter ends with a summary statement: "These are the commandments and the rules that YHWH commanded through Moses to the people of Israel in the plains of Moab by the Jordan at [opposite] Jericho" (Num 36:13).

This epilogue may be a chiasm. It begins and ends talking about situations with marriage (the former being negative intermarriage with unbelievers and the latter positive intermarriage in the tribe of Manasseh). The census appears next and the second-to-last issue is the discussion of inheritances (both including lists of the tribes). After the census we see the faith of Zelophehad's daughters asking for their land rights and before the inheritance discussion we see Reuben and Gad asking for land. After Zelophehad's daughters and before Reuben and Gad's request are sections that prophesy the coming death of Moses. And at the center are the regulations of the religious calendar and vows. While our discussion of the latter has been sparse, vows are an important issue in both Leviticus and Numbers.

Labels: census, chiasm, judah, numbers, phinehas, zelophehad's daughters

Before moving on to this section, it is worth noting that the incident with striking the rock that is Christ resembles something that took place back in Exodus 17:6 where YHWH said, "Behold, I will stand before you there on the rock at Horeb, and you shall strike the rock, and water shall come out of it, and the people will drink." This foreshadows the death of Jesus Christ because the staff of judgment strikes YHWH Himself. And thus Moses in Num 20:8 is to speak to the rock and God will give them drink. Striking the rock again would be like saying Christ would need to die again. Instead, all we need do now is to ask the Rock for our Spiritual food and drink.

But Moses struck the rock again, and thus God says, "Let Aaron be gathered to his people, for he shall not enter the land that I have given to the people of Israel, because you rebelled against my command at the waters of Meribah" (Num 20:24). And Moses stripped Aaron of his garments and put them on Eleazar his son (Num 20:28).
Iain Duguid also observes that by calling the people "rebels" Moses is setting himself up as their judge when God has told them to extend God's mercy and by striking the rock Moses and Aaron are claiming to be the people's saviors. The judgment: death and being stripped of God's glory-image. This is in contrast to the soon-to-be hero Phineas, son of Eleazar.

We see more grumbling against God and Moses a few verses later and YHWH sent "fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people" and the people repented and Moses interceded and the people in faith looked at a serpent on a pole so that they would live (Num 21:4-9). The apostle John later showed that this was a type of the death of Christ too (John 3:14). Meanwhile, the nations are resisting the coming rule of God. Edom, brother to Israel, had refused to allow Israel through (Num 20:14-21, though Duguid says this is because Moses was trying to take a shortcut), the Canaanite king of Arad fought against Israel and took some of them captive but Israel would destroy him and his cities (Num 21:1-3), and Kings Sihon and Og came out to fight Israel and their people also were destroyed (Num 21:21-35). The land of Arad was devoted to destruction as an offering to God (Num 21:2-3) and the lands of Sihon and Og became the possession of Israel (Num 21:24, 35).

Num 22:1 brings us to a new setting in the plains of Moab "beyond the Jordan" (written from the perspective of being in the Promised Land) opposite from Jericho. King Balak, son of Zippor, of Moab, the descendant of Lot, then joined together with the elders of Midian, either descendants of Abraham by Keturah (Gen 25:1-4) or through Ishmael (Gen 37:28). Moses' father-in-law was also said to be a Midianite (Exo 3:1) and so the only earlier reference in Numbers to Midianites were to this family (Num 10:29). The only previous reference in the Torah to the Midianites who lived in Moab tells us about the Edomite who "defeated Midian in the country of Moab" (Gen 36:35). The response of Balak to seeing the defeat of Sihon and Og gives us a glimpse of the response we will see in Jericho and in the whole of the Promised Land in Joshua (Num 22:2-3).

Thus Balak sent for Balaam the son of Beor at Pethor (Num 22:5). Balak wanted Balaam to curse Israel "for I know," Balak said, "that he whom you bless is blessed, and he whom you curse is cursed" (Num 22:6). This should remind us of God's words to Abraham in Gen 12:1-3, especially verse 3: "I will bless those who bless you, and him who dishonors you I will curse, and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed" (Gen 12:3). This is the theme verse, if you will, of this whole story (Num 22:6, 23:11, 23:25, 24:9). And so we have four poetic blessings of Israel (Num 23:7-10, 18-24, 24:3-9, 15-24. Each time saying that Balaam "took up his discourse and said" (Num 23:7, 18, 24:3, 15). Except that the fourth poem has four parts each opening with that phrase (Num 24:15, 20, 21, 23). Four is a very significant number in Scripture where the fourth thing is the punch. That the fourth poem is four small poems means there is a total of seven poetic blessings and curses.

We continue to see then this theme of the nations trying to resist the plan of God but being unable to do so. Even the story line of the negotiations between Balak and Balaam and the story with the donkey have this as the point. Duguid suggests reading what Balaam says carefully and observing where he does not tell the whole story. He neglects to tell God that Balak said these people were "dwelling opposite me" (Num 22:5) and that Balak said that he knew whomever Balaam curses is cursed (Num 22:6). See Num 22:11 for where he leaves those details out when God asks "Who are these men with you?" -- a question meant to see if Balaam will repent. Then when God tells Balaam that the people of Israel are blessed, he neglected to mention that to Balak's messengers (Num 22:13) instead implying that he wants to come but God will not let him yet. Balak takes this as a negotiating posture and sends a bigger bribe.

Balaam sounds good in Num 22:18 saying, "Though Balak were to give me his house full of silver and gold, I could not go beyond the command of YHWH my God to do less or more" (Num 22:18) but then says to wait to see "what more" YHWH will say (Num 22:19). The reason YHWH becomes angry with Balaam for going is that He had told Balaam only to go if the men call again, but Balaam did not wait (Num 22:20-21) and he did not tell the people that he could not curse those YHWH had blessed and YHWH has blessed Israel -- Balaam is not in charge. The story about the donkey then reminds Balaam that he is not in charge. Ironically, Balaam the seer cannot see the angel of YHWH standing in the road.

We are not to understand Balaam as a worshiper of YHWH -- Balaam is a polytheist and primarily a worshiper of Baal. And he uses divination, which is forbidden by YHWH, because it is an attempt to manipulate God. But the story shows us that Balaam cannot manipulate God, he cannot use YHWH's name to curse Israel, God is in control. Perhaps Balaam should point us to his god Baal, the chief Baal god being Baalzebul (Beelzebul or Beelzebub, Satan) who also is not able to go beyond what God allows. In any case, the lesson is that God will bless Israel.

We have noted before that the structure of the Pentateuch is narrative, poetry, epilogue. We saw that pattern in Genesis and will see it in Deuteronomy. And we have been saying that this is the case for Exodus-Numbers too. In fact, we have four poems here in Numbers. And thus here is the climax of Exodus-Numbers. Especially the fourth oracle with four parts. Properly speaking it is this fourth poem in four parts that is the climax. It is introduced by Balaam in Num 24:14 as "in the latter days" a phrase associated with the other poems functioning this way in Genesis 49:1 and Deut 31:29 (the Hebrew word "aharith" meaning in "the last days" introduces all three major poems in the Torah). This is a final judgment eschatological word. Jesus is the star of Jacob.

And thus the epilogue of Exo-Num begins with Num 24:25. It does not begin well as the people of Israel became yoked to the daughters of Moab and then they also became yoked to the false god Baal of Peor (Num 25:1-3). Moses does not adequately deal with the sin and remove it from Israel. The discipline was not working, too limited in scope, and one couple even flaunted their rebellion openly. But Phineas, son of Eleazar the priest, became a hero by executing this couple (Num 25:6-18). And thus to him and his descendants was given "a perpetual priesthood" (Num 25:13) "because he was jealous for his God and made atonement for the people of Israel." The next generation is beginning to show signs of their faith. Analysis of the epilogue will continue with the next post.

Labels: Aaron, Aaron's robe, christ, moses, rock