Feeding the Sheep Torah

The Structure of Lamentations

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sun, 14 Mar 2010 16:56:00 +0000

The parallel book in the chiasm, Song of Songs, is incredibly difficult to divide into poems. In fact, that book seems to be a disorganized compilation of erotic poetry. On the other hand, Lamentations describes a very chaotic situation in a very structured way. There are five poems just as there were five books of Torah and just as there are five books of the Psalms.

The first two poems are alphabetic acrostics in Hebrew where each verse begins with a new letter of the alphabet from a-z (so to speak). The emphasis of the first chapter is on the likeness of Jerusalem to a widow -- lonely and bereaved. It says, "she has none to comfort her" or something similar five times (Lam 1:2, 1:9, 1:16 (twice), and 1:21) in addition to the poetic way the text puts it in the first verse and elsewhere. The chapter also stresses just how faint and weak the people are due to lack of food. The second chapter stresses how it is the Lord who has done this destruction ("he has") in "his anger, wrath, fierce anger, and fierce indignation." Also the emphasis here is on the prophets, priests, and kings and their palaces/temple. The only structural difference between these chapters with long poetic lines for each letter is the order of the letters 'ayin and pe.

The second chapter also appears to have some other patterning within it. The order goes something like this: "the daughter of Zion" (Lam 2:1), "the daughter of Judah" (Lam 2:2), "the daughter of Zion" (Lam 2:4), "the daughter of Judah" (Lam 2:5), "the daughter of Zion" (Lam 2:8), "the daughter of Zion" (Lam 2:10), "the young women of Jerusalem" (Lam 2:10), "the daughter of my people" (Lam 2:11), "daughter of Jerusalem" (Lam 2:13), "virgin daughter of Zion" (Lam 2:13), "the daughter of Jerusalem" (Lam 2:15), "the daughter of Zion (Lam 2:18). It is almost a pattern. Also, the order of Israel and Jacob: "Israel" (Lam 2:1), "Jacob" (Lam 2:2), "Israel," "Jacob" (Lam 2:3), "Israel" (Lam 2:5). Often, Jacob the fallen name is put first and Israel the new creation name follows, but here that pattern is reversed. Perhaps it is hopeful in that it ends with Israel?

In any case, the alphabet allows for order in the midst of the chaos the poetry describes. While the first two chapters were acrostics with long lines, Lamentations 3 is an alphabetic acrostic with three verses for each letter. Thus Lam 1-2 are 22 long verses and Lam 3 is 66 shorter verses. In any case, Lam 1-3 consist in long treatment of each of the 22 letters. Some suggest this fits the "qinah meter" of laments in Scripture: long, long, long, short, short. The thought is that this resembles a lament in sound.

It may be important that Lamentations 3 is the middle poem as well as the last long one. Lam 3:22-27 are important in this regard as this third poem is the only one with lines that offer any hope. After words explaining that it was the Lord who brought this upon him, He says, "The loyal-love of the LORD never ceases; His mercies never come to an end; they are new every morning; great is your faithfulness. "The LORD is my portion," says my soul, "therefore I will hope in Him."" The reason for what has befallen them is their lack of faith and hope in Him -- their faithlessness to Him. But God is faithful even when we are not, and it will take time and there will be suffering, but God will remember them one day.

This poem like those before it reveals that the reason for the suffering of Israel is their sins and it calls those who read it to test and examine themselves and repent (Lam 3:39-40). All of these poems are also very concerned about judgment of those who have sinned against them. The thought is that God has used them to bring judgment upon Israel but they have been most willing participants and have sinned gravely against Israel in doing so. In other words, just because God willed the judgment of Israel does not excuse the sin of the nations that carried out that judgment. The day has come for Israel, let it come also for the nations. This is somewhat different than the attitude of Jesus when he prayed, "Father, forgive them," but it does fit well with our prayers, "Come, Lord Jesus" when we will see justice done.

Lamentations 4 is also an alphabetic acrostic. It has much shorter lines and the focus returns to the chaos among the peoples. Like in the second poem there is mention made of parents eating their children. I can think of nothing more chaotic and gross. Lamentations 5 appears to have 22 lines but is not an alphabetic acrostic. It ends on a down note: "unless you have utterly rejected us, and you remain exceedingly angry with us" (Lam 5:22). It is closer to the pattern of lament psalms in the Psalms, but without the hope.

While the alphabetic acrostics serve to give order in the midst of chaos they also note the totality of the grief experienced (from a-z, so to speak). The destruction of Jerusalem was thorough. This is complete chaos. It is an apt description of Christ on the cross.

Abraham and Moses

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Mon, 15 Feb 2010 18:45:00 +0000

Sailhamer notes that form-critical studies see a lament pattern common in the Psalms as follows: emergency, promise, faith, certainty. He sees the same pattern in the Torah. Genesis 15 and Exodus 3-4 both reveal this pattern. Numbers 14 and 20 also show this pattern but highlight unbelief rather than faith (cf. Numbers 14:11, 20:12). In the Numbers 14 incident almost everything is reversed. For example, the promise is a threat. But for now, let us focus on the contrast being developed between Abraham and Moses: Abraham believed, Moses did not.

This contrast is especially apparent with the theme of land. Abraham believed the promise that he would inherit the land (hence we call it the "Promised Land"). God even gave him a sign to build that faith even more. The sign being the smoking fire pot and flaming torch that passed between the pieces of an animal. God's self-imprecation in word and sign is only surpassed by the curse of the cross of Christ. But Moses did not believe in Him and thus is unable to enter the land. We are not speaking of Moses in order of salvation categories - we know that he is a believer. We are speaking of Moses in history of salvation categories - at this decisive point Moses failed to trust God.

The Abraham faith statement (Genesis 15:6) takes place before the conditional covenant with him. Abraham, God says, "obeyed my voice and kept my charge, my commandments, my statutes, and my laws" (Genesis 26:5) before the giving of the written law. He did so walking before God and being blameless (by faith) (cf. Genesis 17:1). Taking Isaac to be sacrificed is a classic story of faith -- God will provide -- and it was the test of the conditional covenant of Genesis 17.

Sailhamer wants to argue that the contrast of Abraham and Moses implies a contrast of covenants. The covenant with Abram had no written stipulations. The covenant with Moses had many. This observation is true -- the unconditional covenant with Abram (Gen 15) had no stipulations and the conditional covenant with Abraham (Gen 17) had few specific stipulations. The covenant with Moses at first also had no written stipulations and later grew to a huge number. Perhaps the fact that there are more and increasingly more written laws is a result of disobedience. That seems to make sense, it even explains why the author made no attempt to harmonize conflicting regulations. I can even agree that the author of the Torah wants you to see the covenant with Abraham as a better way than the covenant with Moses, thus preparing you for the new covenant. Several New Testament authors make similar arguments.

It is interesting though that the one to come was to be a prophet greater than Moses. And that the following comment is made concerning Moses, "Now the man Moses was very meek, more than all people who were on the face of the earth" (Num 12:3). This is clearly an aside from the hand of the author of the second edition (as Sailhamer describes our canonical Torah). This is interesting because this contrast between Abraham and Moses did not mean that Moses was to be disparaged or even that we should not admire Moses. Clearly Moses was a type of the one to come.

Moses continues to get this honor in the New Testament - he representing the Torah and Elijah representing the Prophets at the transfiguration (i.e. Matt 17:4, Mark 9:4, Luke 9:30). And the gospels like Paul agree that the laws were added because of transgressions (i.e. Matt 19:7ff, Mark 10:4ff). As it is said, "If they do not hear Moses and the Prophets, neither will they be convinced if someone should rise from the dead" (Luke 16:31). There is also the contrast like between Abraham and Moses, but now between Jesus and Moses (John 1:17, 6:32). The religious leaders even argued from this contrast (Acts 6:11, 14). And the people of Israel are described as having set their hope upon Moses and being his disciples rather than setting their hope on Jesus and being his disciples (John 5:45, 7:19, 9:28, 29).

But again, if you believed Moses you would believe Jesus, for he wrote of Jesus (John 5:46). It is instructive that the Torah wants people to contrast Abraham and Moses in favor of the former and yet many of the Jewish people at the time of Jesus were favoring Moses over Abraham, with the exception of the early Christians. To be sure Christians still viewed Moses as a type of Christ (i.e. Acts 7:35, 37, Hebrews 3:5-6). But there is also a contrast of covenants (Acts 13:39, Rom 10:5).

Composition Complete

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Wed, 06 Jan 2010 16:53:00 +0000

In my post, "The Scriptures: A Written Conversation" I noted the chiastic structure of the Writings (the third section of the OT canon) highlights Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth) as the central book. I said, "This ending to the central book of the chiasm of the Writings is fitting. It is similar to ending the New Testament with the Book of Revelation given how Revelation ends warning about adding or subtracting from it. The effect of Ecclesiastes 12:12 is to say, the Writings are now complete until prophecy resumes, beware of adding to or subtracting from them."

Sailhamer notes in The Meaning of the Pentateuch that Scripture distinguishes between "writing in a book" and "making a book." Writing usually has more to do with copying. Making a book has to do with the composition of written works. His point is that making a book is much more complicated than simply taking dictation or copying.

He further argues that "many" can be an adjective "many books" or an adverb "constantly." Thus the verse may refer to either making an "endless number of books" or to how "the process of making a book is endless." He concludes it is the latter because of the warning about adding any more "wise sayings" (Ecclesiastes 12:11). So Sailhamer says, "in Ecclesiastes it aims at cutting short the process of making a book. The problem is not making more books, but deciding whether and when to end this one" (267). The composition of a book can involve several editions and revisions and such, and the author means to cut that process short rather than let it continue indefinitely.

I want to argue that the deeper problem is deciding whether and when to end the composition of the Hebrew Scriptures. Because of the placement of Ecclesiastes in the Hebrew canon, I want to suggest that it is aiming to end the process of making the Scriptures. In other words, for the rest of this time when prophecy has ceased, there should be no more books added to the Book and there should be no more revisions (no more editions of Biblical books, no more editing of Biblical books, and the like). The composition of the Hebrew Scriptures was complete.

It is fitting then that the apostles did not publish their own edition of the Hebrew Scriptures. The apostles viewed the Hebrew Scriptures as a finished product. To be sure they and others close to them made new compositions and some of those are collectively a new composition we now call the New Testament. But early Christians did not write their own versions of the OT Torah, Prophets, and Writings. This is an important observation because various groups in Judaism did this very thing -- they continued to edit and revise the Hebrew Bible for some time.

The Wisdom Shape of the Prophets

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sun, 15 Nov 2009 19:00:00 +0000

In the Hebrew canonical arrangement the former prophets are Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings and the latter prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Book of the Twelve. The number pattern of 3+1 and 3+1 is a feature of Biblical wisdom literature. Usually the +1 is the punch -- Kings ends with the nation of Judah in exile; the Twelve ends with Malachi announcing the coming Day of YHWH. I would dismiss this shape as simply coincidental, understanding that word in a context of faith, except that we have seen that the structure of the Writings is purposeful and because the Twelve were stitched together to make the pattern work. Should you wonder what the purpose of a wisdom shape to the prophets might suggest -- it is quite simple, study, study, study the written words of the prophets. It is an apologetic for the importance of the study of the written word of God.

It is no surprise, as I have observed elsewhere, that the prophets begin and end with wisdom language that emphasizes studying the Torah. The prophets are therefore styled as wisdom teachers of the written Torah. Joshua says, "Only be strong and very courageous, being careful to do according to all the law that Moses my servant commanded you. Do not turn from it to the right hand or to the left, that you may have good success wherever you go. This Book of the Torah shall not depart from your mouth, but you shall meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do according to all that is written in it. For then you will make your way prosperous, and then you will have good success" (Josh 1:7-8, ESV modified).

Likewise, the ending of Malachi resounds the wisdom theme of studying the written word: "Remember the Torah of my servant Moses, the statutes and rules that I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel" (4:4 in English, ESV modified). Thus the way that the prophets are arranged highlights the way people are to use the prophets until the Day came -- study the written word (and in particular: study them as wisdom teachers of Deuteronomy). One should even wonder if the order throughout Joshua 1 of "Moses, my servant" is purposefully switched for Malachi 4:4 to "my servant Moses." The stress being that the written word of God is God's servant.

It is worth noting that one of the effects of putting the Book of the Twelve last is to give it more importance. It is understandable that particularly Isaiah would be perhaps the most influential book of the latter prophets because of its length. The Twelve gets some extra weight, which is lost in the English Bibles, by being read as a single long book. Moreover, it is the +1 book. And even furthermore it is the final book of the Prophets. All of these considerations promote studying the Twelve more than they often are. But like the Writings, sometimes cited by the first book the Psalms, citing Isaiah (or occasionally Jeremiah) is often shorthand for citing the latter Prophets in general.

The Book of the Twelve was stitched together and it follows a discernible geographical pattern -- north (Hosea to Israel), south (Joel to Judah), north (Amos primarily to Israel), south (Obadiah to Edom), north (Jonah to Ninevah), south (Micah to Judah), north (Nahum to Ninevah), south (Habakkuk to Judah), south (Zephaniah to Judah). Then the last three after the restoration of Jerusalem has begun (Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi) are concerned with priestly things, which mirrors the emphasis on priests in the wisdom tradition since they taught Torah. The latter Prophets moves in this direction as a whole in that the last two books are Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve. But the point here is that the Book of the Twelve has a purposeful order like drawing a spiral in to Jerusalem. It should be no surprise then that the gospel reverses this by going from Jerusalem, to Judea, to Samaria and the ends of the earth.

By the way, in the Hebrew Bible the scribes saw the Book of the Twelve as one whole book and made it clear by putting only three spaces instead of four between each one and by giving statistics on the whole.

So we have 3+1 and 3+1. The hero of Kings (the +1 of the former prophets) will return before the coming of the Day (as noted in the +1 of the latter prophets: Malachi 4:5-6, English). Until then, study the written word of these wisdom teachers of Torah. And now that this Elijah has come as John the Baptist and the +1 (eighth) day has begun with the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, continue to study the written word until the seventh day is done.

The Scriptures: A Written Conversation

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sun, 20 Sep 2009 21:10:00 +0000

The word Scripture simply means writings. Of course the only writings that are fully the words of God are those found in the Torah, Prophets and Writings of the Old and New Testaments. But the word Scripture only tells us they are writings. The more I study the structure of Scripture the more I realize that the shape of the book is an apologetic for the importance of the book. In fact, the third section of the canon in the Old Testament is called the Writings. Actually, we might as well call them the Scriptures. Thus just as the Torah (Deuteronomy) is a name we apply to the first section, so the Writings is a name we apply to all the Bible.

The shape of Scripture is an apologetic for the importance of Scripture study. You can see this clearly at the seams of the three sections: Deut 34, Josh 1, Malachi 4, and Psalm 1. It is the reason we are so passionate about The Book.

In any case, the Writings are in conversation (though not in an oral but written form) with the rest of Scripture. The Prophets interpret Torah for a new generation. The Writings are reflections on the Torah and Prophets. Likewise in the New Testament, the New Testament writings are interpreting the significance of the death and resurrection of Christ (Gospels, NT Torah) and the giving of the Spirit on Pentecost (Acts, NT Prophets).

And the Writings are in conversation with each other. The first three: Psalms, Job, and Proverbs are all accented as poetry for chanting in Hebrew. The next five were chanted at festivals during the year: Ruth, Song of Songs, Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes), Lamentations, and Esther. And then the last three are Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles. The ones chanted at festivals form a chiasm -- Ruth the heroine, Song of Songs is erotic poetry, Ecclesiastes in the middle, Lamentations is sad poetry, and Esther the heroine. Thus with three before and three after these five the whole of the Writings makes a chiasm.

The sections within the Writings are stitched together when we realize that Proverbs ends with the poem about the ideal wife (Prov 31:10) and Boaz says that everyone knows Ruth would be the ideal wife (Ruth 3:11). In Hebrew the phrase is identical. Song of Songs gives us another example of the ideal wife, as does Esther parallel to Ruth. Also Esther in many ways is a female Daniel, which bridges those two books together. But already you should be able to see that the Writings are in conversation with one another.

One common literary form in the Writings is the alphabetic acrostic poem. One reason that you would do an alphabetic acrostic is to speak comprehensively. Thus the alphabetic acrostic par excellence is Psalm 119, with eight lines for each letter of the Hebrew alphabet (making it also the longest chapter in the Scriptures). The book of Lamentations consists of six alphabetic acrostics. The poem about the ideal wife in Prov 31:10ff is another example. It is a comprehensive description of the ideal wife from A to Z (for the English alphabetic equivalent). This is in conversation, as Longman notes in his Proverbs commentary on the ideal wife poem, with Psalm 112. Psalm 112:1-10 is an alphabetic acrostic about the ideal husband. The fear of YHWH, like at the end of Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes 12:13) is the preeminent trait of both the wife (Prov 31:30) and husband (Psalm 112:1). The point of Ecclesiastes is to explain the limits of wisdom and this seems to be a favorite feature of this conversation. Job makes a similar point. The limit on wisdom is that we should fear God and keep His Torah.

Thus the Writings make the point about Writings, "My son, beware of anything beyond these. Of making many books there is no end, and much study is a weariness of the flesh" (Ecclesiastes 12:12). We must keep this in conversation with how the delight of the blessed is in the written Torah of YHWH and on this Torah he meditates day and night (Psalm 1:2). Thus we should study (even toil until we are weary) the word of God. But this ending to the central book of the chiasm of the Writings is fitting. It is similar to ending the New Testament with the Book of Revelation given how Revelation ends warning about adding or subtracting from it. The effect of Ecclesiastes 12:12 is to say, the Writings are now complete until prophecy resumes, beware of adding to or subtracting from them.

In the Last Days

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sun, 20 Sep 2009 01:49:00 +0000

As Sailhamer points out, reshith is the antonym of aharith. Or in English, beginning is the antonym of last. Thus the Torah begins, "In the beginning" (bereshith) (Gen 1:1) and then the poetic climaxes are explained as telling what will happen "in the last days" (beaharith hayyamim) (Gen 49:1, Num 24:14, Deut 31:29). The only other place in the Torah where this phrase is found is Deut 4:30. These reflections are inspired by his article, "A Wisdom Composition of the Pentateuch?" in The Way of Wisdom: Essays in Honor of Bruce Waltke published by Zondervan.

This observation encourages us to see that the protology (words about first things) of Gen 1:1 is written to correspond to eschatology (words about last [or ultimate] things) of the poems following Gen 49:1, Num 24:14, and Deut 31:29. One point stressed at WTS was that the prologue of Genesis (Gen 1:1-2:3) as well as the first book of Genesis (Gen 2-4) is eschatological. But we do not need to look beyond the opening word ("in the beginning") to be pointed to the last days. We are living in the last days now, but the phrase in the Torah pointed first to the days of King David before ultimately to the days of his son and Lord Jesus Christ.

To see how the poems pointed to the King we should observe the intertexuality of the poems (that is, how they are in conversation or even quoting one another). Here I am expanding from discussing the three major poems to include the other prominent poems in the Torah. Sailhamer calls it cross-referencing. He notes, for example that Num 24:9a quotes Gen 49:9b. Speaking of the King from the tribe of Judah, these two poems both say, "He crouched as a lion and as a lioness; who dares rouse him?"

Comparing the major poem in Genesis 49 and the major poem starting in Num 24:15 we can see the king's scepter mentioned with Judah in Gen 49:10 is mentioned in Num 24:17. The advance of Numbers is to note the king will defeat certain people groups. As Sailhamer notes, Gen 10 helps you to identify where these people groups in the Numbers poem fit. In fact, it may be that one reason for the writing of Gen 10 was to explain the groups mentioned in Balaam's poem. These peoples are not mentioned in the surrounding story of Numbers, you have to look at Gen 10 to learn about them. The major poem of Deut 32 mentions the events of Gen 10: "When the Most High gave to the nations their inheritance, when he divided mankind, he fixed the borders of the people according to the number of the sons of God" (Deut 32:8). This last poem in Deut 32:10 also uses the word tohu from Gen 1:2.

Therefore, Sailhamer argues that Num 24:24 is showing how the Noahic poetry of Gen 9:27 about Japheth dwelling in the tents of Shem extends to the last days. The Kittim were from Japheth (Gen 10:4). Asshur is one of the sons of Shem (Gen 10:22) and Eber is considered his son too (Gen 10:21).

Sailhamer also says, "In addition, the literary parallels between Deut 33 and Gen 49 are well known. Whole phrases from one poem have been inserted into the other" (p.22). I have noted this previously because Deut 33 is the work of a later hand, but one that borrows from the earlier hand of the Torah. At some point I would like to examine this claim further.

But the point shown here is that "in the beginning" (especially for the purposes of this post, Gen 1-11, the unit that comes before the patriarchal narratives) points us to "in the last days" (Gen 49:1, Num 24:14, Deut 31:29).

The Giants of Deuteronomy

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Wed, 02 Sep 2009 20:11:00 +0000

Generally in a literary-canonical approach we do not dive into questions of multiple authors but simply study the text as we have it. Usually such lines of inquiry have been laden with faulty presuppositions and with agendas to undermine the word of God as we have it (look no further than the bogus JEDP theory, which has torn apart Scripture without any benefit to the church and honest scholars today would admit that it is highly speculative and is the product of particular biases). But it is helpful for those who hold Scripture to be fully the word of God to note what lines in Deuteronomy are the product of a later human hand so that we can see what this finished product of the Spirit is teaching us today.

Aside from the additional poem and epilogue by the editor(s) [hereafter simply, 'editor'], there are few indications of a later hand in the text. The "these words" are not only faithful to Moses but are his very words (as noted in an earlier post, the vocabulary was updated later but this does not change the meaning). And the bulk of the book has this early origin. (As fitting with what I have said above, the whole book when completed is fully the word of God even in the choice of words). But there are a few places where we see the editor's hand.

In particular we see this in the remark "to this day" in Deut 2:22 and Deut 3:14. We already noted that this phrase points us to the editor in the second epilogue and it often does so in other places in the Torah as well. Most of the editorial comments explain geographical issues (people groups and places). These comments interrupt the flow of the passage so much that English translations usually put them in parentheses. For example Deut 3:9 and Deut 3:11 are editorial additions. In particular, verse 11 shows us the main interest of the editor -- King Og was one of the Rephaim (from the size description it is obvious that Og was one of the giants). McConville explains that Canaanite giants were called Anakim [sons of Anak from the Nephilim according to Num 13:33] (Deut 1:28, 9:2), Moabite giants were called Emim (Gen 14:5, Deut 2:10-11), Ammonite giants were called Zamzummim (Deut 2:20, perhaps also Zuzim in Gen 14:5), but Rephaim was the generic title for all such giant races (cf. Deut 2:11). One only needs to read the text in English to see all of these parentheses about giants. Interestingly, the editor also made comments about giants in the book of Joshua (Josh 14:15, 15:13, 21:11 all mentioning that Arba was the father of Anak).

As an aside, I think it is unhelpful to dismiss these editorial comments as less than Scriptural or to think of them as extrapolations and interpretations in later preaching. These additions are inspired of God -- they come from a later human hand -- but they tell us something God wants to teach us.

So why is the editor obsessed with these giants? For one thing, this is why the previous generation (save Joshua and Caleb) were not prepared to enter the land but here we see the next generation defeating a renowned giant even before entering the land and they defeated peoples who had defeated giants. This also helps us understand as well why the people of the land were so afraid when they heard that Israel had defeated King Og. It is also worth noting that we can trace the theme of giants in Scripture to Goliath and to Satan (maybe the reason for the word choice of Rephaim in as much as other texts use the term for those living in the underworld -- McConville cites Psa 88:11, Job 26:5, Isa 26:14 for this meaning but admits that we do not currently know if the two meanings of Rephaim are related). Are there any other reasons you think the editor would be so interested in giants? Aside from what I said above, perhaps they help the text preach to a new generation that is facing metaphorical giants? One of the major concerns of Deuteronomy, shared by the faithful editor, is the preaching of Torah to a new generation. So there may be something to this.

The Structure of Deuteronomy

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sun, 30 Aug 2009 20:31:00 +0000

I have noted before that the Torah as a whole follows a pattern of narrative, poetry, epilogue. Genesis follows this pattern. Exo-Num follows this pattern. And Deuteronomy follows this pattern. Before each of the key poems the Hebrew text uses the word "aharith" (Gen 49:1, Num 24:14, and Deut 31:29). Thus Deut 1-31 has narrative, Deut 32:1-47 is poetry, and Deut 32:48-52 is the epilogue. This is a very fitting ending for Deuteronomy. But then Deuteronomy adds another poem (Deut 33) and epilogue (Deut 34) written from a later perspective (after prophecy has ceased because it says, "there has not arisen a prophet since in Israel like Moses, whom YHWH knew face to face..." (Deut 34:10ff). The other big textual clue to a later date for this section is the phrase "but no one knows the place of his burial to this day" (Deut 34:6). To what day? Much later.

I have written about some of the themes and agendas of this additional poem and epilogue in my post The Way of Wisdom: The Canon and Cessation. As I said there, the extra poem and epilogue are Scripture (fully the word of God as well as of this editor). And one of the things that Sailhamer notes in his book cited there, if I remember correctly, is that the additional poem reflects the poem of Gen 49 but you can see its distinctive emphases by comparing the two poems. The one big difference is the additional emphasis on the tribe of Levi in this poem in Deuteronomy because the wisdom teachers of Scripture were Levites.

So the big picture of the structure is [prologue,] narrative, poetry, epilogue, poetry, epilogue. It is also worth noting that the narrative is a series of speeches. The first speech is Deut 1:6-4:40, the second is Deut 5:1-28:68, the third is Deut 29:1-30:20, and the fourth is Deut 31:1-8. Deut 1:1-5 are introducing the speeches and the first speech in particular, Deut 5:1a is a brief introduction to the second speech, Deut 29:1-2a is a brief introduction to the third speech, and a fourth speech is introduced in Deut 31:1-2a, with a brief intro in Deut 31:7 to the rest of the speech. The effect of these introductions is to put the speeches in a narrative context much like the same for the laws back in Leviticus. Deut 31:9 then continues the narrative where the emphasis is on passing on Deuteronomy to future generations (a concern of the editor too). And the narrative transitions to introducing the first poem-song.

The reason I said above that the structure is best described as prologue, narrative, poetry, epilogue, poetry, epilogue is because Deut 1:1-5 can be understood as a prologue or preamble to the book. This is a more elaborate form of the narrative, poetry, epilogue pattern in Torah that we saw in some books in Genesis. Calling it a prologue or preamble actually opens the door for beginning to note that the structure of the book actually resembles a Hittite covenant-treaty format. Thus the preamble of the treaty is Deut 1:1-5, the historical prologue is the first speech (Deut 1:6-4:40 plus the narrative that follows Deut 4:41-49), the covenant stipulations (Deut 5:1-26:19) and sanctions (Deut 27:1-30:20) are laid out in the second and third speeches. And the rest of the book also has elements easily identified with normal parts of such a treaty. We saw before that Leviticus 18 and more loosely the whole Holiness Code of Leviticus also follow this pattern. Looking at Deuteronomy this way is the approach of Meredith Kline and is a very helpful observation.

Noting the prominence of speeches or sermons in the book highlights the Hebrew title based on the opening words of Deuteronomy, "These are the words."

The Place of Deuteronomy in the Torah

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Thu, 27 Aug 2009 20:29:00 +0000

As earlier posts make clear, the canonical order of the books of Scripture makes a difference in how we read them. Thus I want to explore the effect of Deuteronomy's position in the Torah as the last book without repeating observations made in previous posts like Old and New Testament Torah, Prophets & Writings and The Way of Wisdom: The Canon and Cessation. If you have not read those posts, please do so before continuing with this one.

Simply put, the effect of putting Deuteronomy last is to make it the most important. This is reflected in later Scripture. For example, whenever the Prophets refer to Torah (or the longer form 'Torah of Moses') they are referring not to the canonical designation for Genesis through Deuteronomy but they are referring to the Book of Deuteronomy. The late Al Groves researched each of these references to "Torah" and concluded that every one of them was a reference to Deuteronomy. Moreover, the most quoted book of the Torah in the New Testament is Deuteronomy.

But it is actually a little more complicated than this. Deuteronomy shows us the shift from the spoken Torah of Moses to the written Torah of Moses. As noted elsewhere, not every word of the written Torah of Moses was written by Moses. In fact, the written Torah of Moses was undoubtedly edited later, has an updated vocabulary throughout, and has the extra poem and epilogue telling us about the death of Moses written from the standpoint of the cessation of prophecy. On the updated vocabulary Pete Enns notes as he reflects on the comments of an unnamed Old Testament scholar: "The specific point concerned the state of Hebrew in the 2nd millennium BC, and how no one living at that time (i.e., Moses) could have written the Pentateuch as we know it, as it reflects a state of Hebrew that did not develop until the 1st millennium" (see II). But for our purposes here, the effect is to highlight the editor(s)' comments and especially the editor(s)' conclusion. This is fitting for the gospel genre because the NT Torah was not written down by Jesus and so you will see this similarity between Deuteronomy and Matthew-John. Deuteronomy is most like John because it assumes you know the story (a point that I could develop further).

This same effect is observable in the Hebrew Scriptures as a whole because the Prophets interpret Torah and show more acts of God and then the Writings interpret the Torah and Prophets. Likewise in the New Testament as particularly the epistles (writings) interpret the significance of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (gospels, NT Torah) and the giving of the Spirit on Pentecost (Acts, NT Prophets). Each Torah is foundational to the rest and so it is most important in that respect. Though no Christian would dispute that the effect of the Gospels coming later makes them more important. In the Old Testament, it is also clear that God spoke to Moses face to face but to the later prophets and especially to the writers this revelation becomes increasingly indirect. But we cannot underestimate the impact for those living just before and at the time of Christ to have the canon in this order. It was the Writings that showed you how to interpret the written Torah for your new situation.

We see this even in the Torah because what Deuteronomy does is show us the torah (instruction) adapted to a new generation. There are a variety of inconsistencies between the laws found earlier and found in Deuteronomy (many of which simply reflect a later situation, this cannot be said of all the differences). McConville notes in his commentary in the AOTC series that Deuteronomy is concerned to apply torah (instruction of Moses) to not only the Moab generation but also to all generations (cf. p.136). The point being that the book is concerned for transmission of the Decalogue and all the torah (instruction including law and history) of the Torah to future generations. As Deuteronomy itself demonstrates, this transmission requires teaching and interpretation (concerns highlighted by the editor of Deuteronomy who promotes the priests as teachers of written Torah).

So in summary the effect of Deuteronomy being the last book of the Torah is to make the equation of Deuteronomy and Torah. That is, Torah = Deuteronomy. And to emphasize that the Torah must be taught and interpreted for every new generation by wisdom teachers. Thus the spoken words of Moses are not nearly as important, even though the book consists of three major speeches, as the written book of Deuteronomy. And so we should pay careful attention and highlight any comments made by the editor(s) as we proceed through our investigation of this Torah especially noting his fascination with giants (something I remember Al Groves noting).

As a final point for now, just as when you read the New Testament and find the end of the story and then go back and re-read the Old Testament to see how it points to the end, you should also re-read the whole Torah from Genesis to Numbers after you have read Deuteronomy. Deuteronomy is inviting you to do this. It is assuming that you know the story of Numbers in particular and is encouraging you to read it again. But it is also inviting you to compare the Decalogue in Exodus with the new presentation in Deuteronomy and so forth. May this observation keep you studying Torah in a loop so long as you keep seeing the one who is its subject: Jesus Christ.

Part V, In the Wilderness: Numbers 26-36

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Wed, 12 Aug 2009 15:32:00 +0000

The epilogue to Exodus-Numbers began with Num 24:25. This long epilogue is fitting for such a long narrative. And it tells for us the story of the second generation in the wilderness. We seen the holy jealousy of Phinehas, son of Eleazar the priest, for the true God of Israel. And now we are going to see that he is representative of the whole generation.

First we have a new census and it should be noted that instead of YHWH speaking to Moses and Aaron He is now speaking to Moses and Eleazar (Aaron's son) the priest (Num 26:1). This census is again for those 20 years old and up who are able to go to war (i.e. again it will not include Levi) (Num 26:2). The order of the census by tribe was Reuben, Simeon, Gad, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Manasseh, Ephraim, Benjamin, Dan, Asher, and Naphtali. This is the same order of the census in Numbers 1 where Gad was promoted to prepare for the placement of the tribes around the tabernacle, except for the order of Manasseh and Ephraim. I now instinctively look at the order and try to discover why.

Within the census data there is some commentary. First, after numbering Reuben there are comments made about Dathan and Abiram and their children who rebelled with Korah and were swallowed by the earth together with Korah (but apparently not Korah's children (Num 26:9-11). So this commentary looks backwards. There is a second comment made regarding Judah's sons Er and Onan (Num 26:19, cf. Gen 46:12, 38:7, 10). Third, the census tells us about Zelophehad who had no sons but did have daughters and the text even gives us the names of these daughters, which is very unusual (Num 26:32, only cf. Num 26:46). So the reversal of Ephraim and Manasseh highlights this comment and prepares us to look forward for the following events.

It is worth looking at the numbers in Numbers 26. The format of these refections is to note the number in this chapter compared to (::) the number in the census in chapter 1. Reuben (43,730 :: 46,500), Simeon (22,200 :: 59,300), Gad (40,500, :: 45,650), Judah (76,500 :: 74,600), Issachar (64,300 :: 54,400), Zebulun (60,500 :: 57,400), Manasseh (52,700 :: 32,200) Ephraim (32,500 :: 40,500), Benjamin (45,600 :: 35,400), Dan (64,400 :: 62,700), Asher (53,400 :: 41,500), Naphtali (45,400 :: 53,400). And the total is 601,730 compared to 603,550. The total shows us that the nation has almost recovered in size despite the death of most of the previous generation.

Looking at the numbers reveals a quite surprising pattern (though I guess I should no longer be surprised by things like this, perhaps I am surprised because I notice these things without a commentary showing me). South of the tabernacle: Reuben, Simeon, and Gad are all smaller. The coveted dwelling place east of the tabernacle: Judah, Issachar and Zebulun are all larger. West of the tabernacle: Manasseh is larger, Ephraim is smaller, and Benjamin is larger. And to the north: Dan and Asher are larger and Naphtali is smaller. Judah is still the largest (still even exceeding Ephraim plus Manasseh). By now you too can draw some conclusions from these observations. Moreover, the size of their inheritance is related to the number in this census (Num 26:53-54).

After this there is a new list of the Levites by clan. It notes many of the same things noted earlier in Numbers like the death of Nadab and Abihu (Num 3:4, 26:61, cf. Lev 10:1) and the fact that they were not listed in the census because they have no inheritance (Num 18:20, 23, 24, 26:62). The text also mentions Miriam (Num 26:59). The total male Levites one month old and up was 23,000 (Num 26:62) compared to 22,000 (Num 3:39).

By way of inclusio, the passage ends mentioning Moses and Eleazar the priest and the setting of the plains of Moab by the Jordan opposite Jericho. And mentioning the previous census the author makes it clear that only Caleb and Joshua were counted in both -- everyone else from the earlier census died in the wilderness (Num 26:64-65).

As mentioned before, we were prepared by the order of the census for the story of the daughters of Zelophehad that follows. We see their faith in approaching Eleazar the priest for their father's portion of the inheritance. Appropriately given the other major commentary in the census, they note that their father did not die in the company of Korah but "for his own sin" (Num 27:3). We see them concerned for the name of their father (Num 27:4). And YHWH set down a statute and a rule for the people of Israel that their father's inheritance would go to his daughters and also setting forward the inheritance principles when there is no children at all.

Next we pick back up where we left off with the death of Aaron. YHWH tells Moses to go up into Abarim mountain and see the Promised Land and when he sees it "you shall be gathered to your people, as your brother Aaron was, because you rebelled against my word in the wilderness of Zin when the congregation quarreled, failing to uphold me as holy at the waters before their eyes" (Num 27:13-14). So that there is no confusion it is added: "These are the waters of Meribah of Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin" (Num 27:14). And Moses asks for God to appoint a man to lead Israel so that they "may not be as sheep that have no shepherd" (Num 27:17). And YHWH appointed Joshua "in whom is the Spirit" and Moses ordained him (Num 27:18-23). Moses' death then is on hold so that Joshua can be established as having some of Moses' authority before Moses dies.

Next Moses describes daily offerings (Num 28:1-8), weekly offerings on the Sabbath (Num 28:9-10), monthly offerings to begin each month (Num 28:11-15), and yearly offerings for Passover and the feast of unleavened bread (Num 28:16-25), for the Feast of Weeks (Num 28:26-31), for the Festival of Trumpets (Num 29:1-6), the Day of Atonement (Num 29:7-11), the Feast of Booths/Tabernacles (Num 29:12-38). This is a religious calendar following the same pattern as the one in Lev 23. The following chapter deals with vows (Num 30:1-16).

The epilogue continues the story of the death of Moses with "Avenge the people of Israel on the Midianites. Afterward you shall be gathered to your people" (Num 31:2). With Phinehas, twelve thousand, a thousand from each tribe, went to war against the Midianites in Moab and also killed Balaam the son of Beor. Ultimately only the women who had never had sex were spared (Num 31:16-18, 31:35). There were no casualties among the men of Israel who went to war (Num 31:49). The passage lays out clearly what spoil went to YHWH's treasury and the Levites and what went to the warriors and the congregation.

Next we see the tribes of Reuben and Gad request to take possession of the land they were in rather than going across the Jordan. Moses was not pleased and recited the story about the spies. But Reuben and Gad promised to fight to secure the inheritance beyond the Jordan for the other tribes if they could possess the land of Gilead and Jazer. And Moses agreed. Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh received the kingdoms of Sihon and Og and built cities to protect their young and livestock while they went to war for the other tribes.

Num 33:1-49 recounts the journey of Israel from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Then Moses told the people to destroy the idols and high places in Canaan and that they would inherit the land by lots according to their size. And he warns, "But if you do not drive out the inhabitants of the land from before you, then those of them whom you let remain shall be as barbs in your eyes and thorns in your sides, and they shall trouble you in the land where you dwell. And I will do to you [YHWH says] as I thought to do to them" (Num 33:55-56). Then YHWH told them the borders of the land (Num 34:1-15).

One chief from each tribe was to divide the inheritance in addition to Joshua and Eleazar the priest. The order of the tribes listed is Judah, Simeon, Benjamin, Dan, Manasseh, Ephraim, Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, and Naphtali. Glancing at a map suggests that these are roughly in order from south to north where the tribes will be in the Promised Land. Simeon's borders are within Judah. Reuben and Gad have already received their whole inheritance and Num 35:1-8 provides for Levitical cities (including cities of refuge (three in the land where Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh have inherited) Num 35:9-34 and further explaining their purpose and the death penalty for murder. These cities of refuge protected those who unintentionally killed another Israelite from the normal ANE custom of the avenger of blood. This is an appropriate discussion to have here since blood defiles and pollutes the land (Num 35:33-34).

In the final chapter, in order to preserve the before-mentioned inheritances Moses agreed with the people of Manasseh that the daughters of Zelophehad had to marry within the tribe so that the land would remain Manasseh's inheritance. And the chapter ends with a summary statement: "These are the commandments and the rules that YHWH commanded through Moses to the people of Israel in the plains of Moab by the Jordan at [opposite] Jericho" (Num 36:13).

This epilogue may be a chiasm. It begins and ends talking about situations with marriage (the former being negative intermarriage with unbelievers and the latter positive intermarriage in the tribe of Manasseh). The census appears next and the second-to-last issue is the discussion of inheritances (both including lists of the tribes). After the census we see the faith of Zelophehad's daughters asking for their land rights and before the inheritance discussion we see Reuben and Gad asking for land. After Zelophehad's daughters and before Reuben and Gad's request are sections that prophesy the coming death of Moses. And at the center are the regulations of the religious calendar and vows. While our discussion of the latter has been sparse, vows are an important issue in both Leviticus and Numbers.

Part IV, In the Wilderness: Numbers 20:22-25:18

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Fri, 07 Aug 2009 15:55:00 +0000

Before moving on to this section, it is worth noting that the incident with striking the rock that is Christ resembles something that took place back in Exodus 17:6 where YHWH said, "Behold, I will stand before you there on the rock at Horeb, and you shall strike the rock, and water shall come out of it, and the people will drink." This foreshadows the death of Jesus Christ because the staff of judgment strikes YHWH Himself. And thus Moses in Num 20:8 is to speak to the rock and God will give them drink. Striking the rock again would be like saying Christ would need to die again. Instead, all we need do now is to ask the Rock for our Spiritual food and drink.

But Moses struck the rock again, and thus God says, "Let Aaron be gathered to his people, for he shall not enter the land that I have given to the people of Israel, because you rebelled against my command at the waters of Meribah" (Num 20:24). And Moses stripped Aaron of his garments and put them on Eleazar his son (Num 20:28).
Iain Duguid also observes that by calling the people "rebels" Moses is setting himself up as their judge when God has told them to extend God's mercy and by striking the rock Moses and Aaron are claiming to be the people's saviors. The judgment: death and being stripped of God's glory-image. This is in contrast to the soon-to-be hero Phineas, son of Eleazar.

We see more grumbling against God and Moses a few verses later and YHWH sent "fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people" and the people repented and Moses interceded and the people in faith looked at a serpent on a pole so that they would live (Num 21:4-9). The apostle John later showed that this was a type of the death of Christ too (John 3:14). Meanwhile, the nations are resisting the coming rule of God. Edom, brother to Israel, had refused to allow Israel through (Num 20:14-21, though Duguid says this is because Moses was trying to take a shortcut), the Canaanite king of Arad fought against Israel and took some of them captive but Israel would destroy him and his cities (Num 21:1-3), and Kings Sihon and Og came out to fight Israel and their people also were destroyed (Num 21:21-35). The land of Arad was devoted to destruction as an offering to God (Num 21:2-3) and the lands of Sihon and Og became the possession of Israel (Num 21:24, 35).

Num 22:1 brings us to a new setting in the plains of Moab "beyond the Jordan" (written from the perspective of being in the Promised Land) opposite from Jericho. King Balak, son of Zippor, of Moab, the descendant of Lot, then joined together with the elders of Midian, either descendants of Abraham by Keturah (Gen 25:1-4) or through Ishmael (Gen 37:28). Moses' father-in-law was also said to be a Midianite (Exo 3:1) and so the only earlier reference in Numbers to Midianites were to this family (Num 10:29). The only previous reference in the Torah to the Midianites who lived in Moab tells us about the Edomite who "defeated Midian in the country of Moab" (Gen 36:35). The response of Balak to seeing the defeat of Sihon and Og gives us a glimpse of the response we will see in Jericho and in the whole of the Promised Land in Joshua (Num 22:2-3).

Thus Balak sent for Balaam the son of Beor at Pethor (Num 22:5). Balak wanted Balaam to curse Israel "for I know," Balak said, "that he whom you bless is blessed, and he whom you curse is cursed" (Num 22:6). This should remind us of God's words to Abraham in Gen 12:1-3, especially verse 3: "I will bless those who bless you, and him who dishonors you I will curse, and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed" (Gen 12:3). This is the theme verse, if you will, of this whole story (Num 22:6, 23:11, 23:25, 24:9). And so we have four poetic blessings of Israel (Num 23:7-10, 18-24, 24:3-9, 15-24. Each time saying that Balaam "took up his discourse and said" (Num 23:7, 18, 24:3, 15). Except that the fourth poem has four parts each opening with that phrase (Num 24:15, 20, 21, 23). Four is a very significant number in Scripture where the fourth thing is the punch. That the fourth poem is four small poems means there is a total of seven poetic blessings and curses.

We continue to see then this theme of the nations trying to resist the plan of God but being unable to do so. Even the story line of the negotiations between Balak and Balaam and the story with the donkey have this as the point. Duguid suggests reading what Balaam says carefully and observing where he does not tell the whole story. He neglects to tell God that Balak said these people were "dwelling opposite me" (Num 22:5) and that Balak said that he knew whomever Balaam curses is cursed (Num 22:6). See Num 22:11 for where he leaves those details out when God asks "Who are these men with you?" -- a question meant to see if Balaam will repent. Then when God tells Balaam that the people of Israel are blessed, he neglected to mention that to Balak's messengers (Num 22:13) instead implying that he wants to come but God will not let him yet. Balak takes this as a negotiating posture and sends a bigger bribe.

Balaam sounds good in Num 22:18 saying, "Though Balak were to give me his house full of silver and gold, I could not go beyond the command of YHWH my God to do less or more" (Num 22:18) but then says to wait to see "what more" YHWH will say (Num 22:19). The reason YHWH becomes angry with Balaam for going is that He had told Balaam only to go if the men call again, but Balaam did not wait (Num 22:20-21) and he did not tell the people that he could not curse those YHWH had blessed and YHWH has blessed Israel -- Balaam is not in charge. The story about the donkey then reminds Balaam that he is not in charge. Ironically, Balaam the seer cannot see the angel of YHWH standing in the road.

We are not to understand Balaam as a worshiper of YHWH -- Balaam is a polytheist and primarily a worshiper of Baal. And he uses divination, which is forbidden by YHWH, because it is an attempt to manipulate God. But the story shows us that Balaam cannot manipulate God, he cannot use YHWH's name to curse Israel, God is in control. Perhaps Balaam should point us to his god Baal, the chief Baal god being Baalzebul (Beelzebul or Beelzebub, Satan) who also is not able to go beyond what God allows. In any case, the lesson is that God will bless Israel.

We have noted before that the structure of the Pentateuch is narrative, poetry, epilogue. We saw that pattern in Genesis and will see it in Deuteronomy. And we have been saying that this is the case for Exodus-Numbers too. In fact, we have four poems here in Numbers. And thus here is the climax of Exodus-Numbers. Especially the fourth oracle with four parts. Properly speaking it is this fourth poem in four parts that is the climax. It is introduced by Balaam in Num 24:14 as "in the latter days" a phrase associated with the other poems functioning this way in Genesis 49:1 and Deut 31:29 (the Hebrew word "aharith" meaning in "the last days" introduces all three major poems in the Torah). This is a final judgment eschatological word. Jesus is the star of Jacob.

And thus the epilogue of Exo-Num begins with Num 24:25. It does not begin well as the people of Israel became yoked to the daughters of Moab and then they also became yoked to the false god Baal of Peor (Num 25:1-3). Moses does not adequately deal with the sin and remove it from Israel. The discipline was not working, too limited in scope, and one couple even flaunted their rebellion openly. But Phineas, son of Eleazar the priest, became a hero by executing this couple (Num 25:6-18). And thus to him and his descendants was given "a perpetual priesthood" (Num 25:13) "because he was jealous for his God and made atonement for the people of Israel." The next generation is beginning to show signs of their faith. Analysis of the epilogue will continue with the next post.

Part III, In the Wilderness: Numbers 15:1-20:21

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Thu, 30 Jul 2009 21:59:00 +0000

I have not discovered an easy way to divide up the book. The narrative of Numbers, like Exodus, does not appear to be structured in any patterns. Exodus was organized thematically around salvation, law, and worship. And some try to divide the text of Numbers by discussing what wilderness they were in or going toward, but there is no consensus to my knowledge on even how one might do that. Thus the divisions we have and will observe may be somewhat artificial but necessary for such a long text.

Yet chapter 15 itself has some of the structural phrases we saw in Leviticus. Sections begin with YHWH speaking to Moses and saying, "Speak to the people of Israel and say to them, When you come into the land..." (Num 15:1-2, 17-18 and a shorter intro in Num 15:37-38). The phrase "a pleasing aroma to YHWH" sometimes marking paragraph endings in the first section (Num 15:7, 10). And the whole chapter closing: "I am YHWH your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt to be your God: I am YHWH your God" (Num 15:41). Thus ending with a double "I am YHWH your God" similar to parts of Leviticus.

Thus in the context of having pronounced judgment on Moses, Miriam and Aaron, and the twelve tribes (not including Levi), the narrative republishes the law. This is a blessing because the laws begin affirming that Israel will be inhabiting the Promised Land. The phrase, "When you come into the land" is not new (Lev 14:4, 19:23, 23:10, 25:2). In fact, this whole section republishing the law includes familiar phrases like, "a pleasing aroma to YHWH" (Num 15:3, 7, 10, 13, 14, 24, 18:17, cf. Exo 29:18, 25, 41, Lev 1:9, 13, 17, 2:2, 9, 12, 3:5, 16, 4:31, 6:15, 21, 8:21, 28, 17:6, 23:13, 18). We see the principle: "One law and one rule shall be for you and for the stranger who sojourns with you" (Num 15:16, 29 cf. Exo 12:49, Lev 17:8, 12, 18:26, 19:34, especially Lev 24:22 and Num 9:14). The idea that there will be "native born" Israelites also accents the hope of this passage as they will come into the land. The phrase "a statute forever throughout your generations" is also familiar (Num 15:15, 19:21 also see Num 15:21, cf. Exo 12:14, 17, 27:21, 28:43, 29:9, 30:21, Lev 3:17, 10:9, 16:31, 34, 17:7, 23:14, 21, 31, 41, 24:3).

These are not the only familiar themes. One prevalent in Torah is the idea, of 'observing' "all these commandments that YHWH has spoken to Moses, all that YHWH has commanded you by Moses" (Num 15:22-23). The chapter even closes with this idea. Telling the people "to make tassels on the corners of their garments throughout their generations...for you to look at and remember all the commandments of YHWH, to do them, not to follow [footnote: to spy out] after your own heart and your own eyes, which you are inclined to whore after. So you shall remember and do all my commandments [cf. Matt 28:20], and be holy to your God" (Num 15:38-40). The people are to be holy being another common theme. And the idea common in Leviticus of the priest offering atonement for the sins of the people is also in Num 15:25, 28.

Something that seems particularly accented is the unity of the people before God. Unintentional sins involve the whole population (Num 15:25-26) regardless of whether they are native Israelites or foreign sojourners in the land (Num 15:29). "But the person who does anything with a high hand...shall be cut off...his iniquity shall be on him" (Num 15:30-31). A live demonstration following with the execution of a Sabbath breaker (Num 15:32-36) where "all the congregation brought him outside the camp and stoned him to death with stones, as YHWH commanded Moses" (Num 15:36). These themes are about to be played out in Num 16:1ff and it is fitting that these regulations come before this incident. As I noted earlier, God has pronounced judgments on Moses, Miriam and Aaron, and the twelve tribes (not including Levi), thus now we will see a revolt led by Korah of the tribe of Levi and their judgment.

More accurately this was a revolt of Korah, son of Kohath, son of Levi and Reubenites Dathan, Abiram, and Peleth (Num 16:1). This makes sense when you remember the way that Israel camped around the tabernacle -- the Kohathites and the Reubenites were on the south side. The issue is just that -- they were on the south side, and not on the east -- that is, their complaint is that they are not at the top of the society. They sound democratic (Num 16:3) but in reality they are only concerned about themselves being elevated to the place of the priests for the Kohathites (Num 16:10) and Judah for the Reubenites. These men despised YHWH (Num 15:31, 16:30). And the earth swalllowed them. Not surprisingly, then the people grumbled against Moses and Aaron (Num 16:41) and there was yet another plague (Num 16:46-50).

In the next chapter, the staff for Levi, the staff of Aaron, budded and was placed before the testimony "as a sign for the rebels, that you may make an end of their grumblings against me, lest they die" (Num 17:10) and the people said to Moses, "Behold, we perish, we are undone, we are all undone. Everyone who comes near, who comes near to the tabernacle of YHWH, shall die. Are we all to perish?" (Num 17:13). This was the wrong response. The staff was an almond tree bearing fruit. Likewise, the lampstand in the tabernacle was an almond tree with symbolic fruit on it. This is an image of the tree of life, Duguid notes, and it is an almond tree because they bear fruit early so that it shows the season of spring is coming. Thus this almond tree bearing fruit demonstrates that the nation will soon be fruitful.

As a fitting addition to these things, the following chapter lays out the duties of the priests and other Levites so that the people might not die. Again the priests and the other Levites will be guarding each other and guarding the people. The idea, "I am your portion and your inheritance among the people of Israel" being repeated (Num 18:20, 23, 24). And the idea that they would have a perpetual due is repeated (Num 18:8, 11, 19, cf. Exo 29:28, Lev 7:34, 36, 24:9). And the priests would tithe their tithe (Num 18:26) as we saw in Leviticus.

An organizing phrase appears to be variations on YHWH spoke to Moses or Aaron or Moses and Aaron. We saw that in chapter 15, in chapter 16 the phrase is missing on purpose because Korah and the Reubenite rebels were acting presumptuously, but we see it in Num 16:20, 36, 17:1, 18:1, 8, 25, and 19:1. But chapter 19 is organized differently. The first section begins, "This is the statute of the law that YHWH has commanded" (Num 19:2) and ends saying, "And this shall be a perpetual statute for the people of Israel, and for the stranger who sojourns among them" (Num 19:10) right after explaining the period of uncleanness. And then there are two "whoever" explanations (Num 19:11-12, 13) depending on whether one cleansed themselves after touching a dead body. The rest of the chapter opens, "This is the law (torah) when..." (Num 19:14). Here again we see familiar themes of clean and unclean, periods of seven days, sacrificing an animal without defect or blemish, etc.

In chapter 20 we see the deaths of Miriam and Aaron. The first when they were in Kadesh aka the wilderness of Zin (Num 20:1) and then Aaron after they left (Num 20:22). In an effort to pay attention to movement in the wilderness we are stopping just short of the death of Aaron, but it is intimately connected to the preceding narrative in as much as he will not enter the land "because you [Moses] rebelled against my [YHWH's] command at the waters of Meribah" (Num 20:24). Before this, we are told that Miriam died at Kadesh and was buried there (Num 20:1). Being buried outside of the land is highly significant since it meant that they were not buried in an inheritance. There was no water and as could be expected by this point with this rebellious generation the people assembled together against Moses and Aaron and quarreled with Moses (Num 20:2-3). Again the accusation of unbelief is leveled that they were brought into the wilderness to die (Num 20:4-5). Moses and Aaron were to tell the rock, that is Christ, to yield its water for the congregation of Israel and their cattle but instead Moses struck the rock with his staff twice. Thus YHWH told Moses and Aaron, Because you did not believe in me, ... therefore you shall not bring this assembly into the land that I have given them" (Num 20:12). The precise nature of what they did wrong has been glossed over as unbelief. Their lack of faith kept them from entering the land. And here we see Edom refuse passage to their brothers (Num 20:18-21). But more on all this next time.

Part II, In The Wilderness: Numbers 10:11-14:45

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Fri, 24 Jul 2009 18:36:00 +0000

In Num 10:11 the people of Israel begin to "set out by stages from the wilderness of Sinai" where they have been since Exodus 19:1. Following the cloud by day first to the wilderness of Paran (Num 10:11, 34). Next, following the quail incident, "the people journeyed to Hazeroth" (Num 11:35). "After that [the seven days Miriam was unclean with a skin disease] the people set out from Hazeroth, and camped in the wilderness of Paran" (Num 12:16). So we are still in the same general region where we started. From this wilderness went the spies into the land of Canaan. It looks like the people successfully move again when they "came into the wilderness of Zin in the first month, and the people stayed in Kadesh" (Num 20:1). Next they would journey from Kadesh to Mount Hor (Num 20:22), and then on eventually to the plains of Moab (Num 22:1). A more specific account of the places where they stopped is given in Num 33:16-49.

The people left in a particular order -- "the people of Judah set out first" (Num 10:14). Issachar and Zebulun followed (Num 10:15-16). The tabernacle was dismantled and the Gershonites and Merarites set out (Num 10:17). Reuben, Simeon, and Gad followed (Num 10:18-20). Then the Kohathites set out (Num 10:21), followed by Ephraim, Manasseh and Benjamin (Num 10:22-24). And finally the people of Dan, Asher, and Naphtali set out (Num 10:25-28). The order follows from east, south, west, north through the tribes by prominence as discussed in the previous post. But the order of the Levites does not follow in the same way but seems to be for practical reasons. Then Moses encouraged his father-in-law to come too (Num 10:29-32).

But the next chapter begins ominously, "And the people complained in the hearing of YHWH about their misfortunes [evil], and when YHWH heard it, his anger was kindled, and the fire of YHWH burned among them and consumed some outlying parts of the camp" (Num 11:1). Moses interceded for the people who had tested God and the fire died down (Num 11:2). Afterwards, they named the place "burning" (Num 11:3). This is the first test of chapter 11.

The second test, as Duguid explains it, begins with verse 4 where the people complained about the manna, which was excellent food (cf. Num 11:7-8). The story begins, "Now the rabble that was among them had a strong craving" (Num 11:4) and ends, "Therefore the name of that place was called Kibroth-hattaavah [footnote says this means "graves of craving"], because there they buried the people who had the craving" (Num 11:34). In the middle should have been the intercession of Moses to follow the pattern of verses 1-3. But this time Moses complained instead of interceding for the people.

Therefore the second episode is much longer as it tells us about the judgment against Moses. In this judgment, some of the Spirit that was upon him was put on seventy of the elders of Israel (Num 11:16ff). These briefly prophesied (Num 11:25) as a sign that they had received the Spirit including two that remained in the camp (Num 11:25ff). But even though this was a judgment against the leadership of Moses and the people now would ramp up their complaints about the leadership of Moses, he said, "Would that all YHWH's people were prophets, that YHWH would put his Spirit on them!" (Num 11:29). I have referenced this in the past as a text helpful in understanding the Day of Pentecost after the resurrection of Christ. The people would then also prophesy briefly (speaking in tongues) as a sign showing they had received the Spirit, but this time the Spirit would be poured out indiscriminately. The basic point here being that Moses learned his lesson and sees that God can turn this curse (like those in Genesis) into a blessing. Thus we have one of the elements of the gospel -- the promise of the giving of the Spirit.

Not surprisingly then, Aaron and Miriam, especially since Aaron had a portion of the Spirit that should have been on Moses, confront Moses "because of the Cushite woman whom he had married" (Num 12:1). We have the interesting aside, "Now the man Moses was very meek, more than all people who were on the face of the earth" (Num 12:3). Interesting since the meek will inherit the land (Psa 37:11, Matt 5:5), but Moses does not get to enter it. In any case, Aaron and Miriam also have prophesied and so they resist the leadership of Moses (cf. Num 12:2). And YHWH came down in a pillar of cloud (like the previous judgment against Moses, Num 11:25) to declare His verdict regarding Aaron and Miriam saying, "If there is a prophet among you, I YHWH make myself known to him in a vision; I speak with him in a dream. Not so with my servant Moses. He is faithful in all my house. With him I speak mouth to mouth, clearly, and not in riddles, and he beholds the form of YHWH. Why then were you not afraid to speak against my servant Moses?" (Num 12:6-8). And the anger of God was kindled against them and made Miriam unclean for seven days (Num 12:10ff).

In the next wilderness, Moses sent the spies into the land. The order of the spies' tribes (Num 13:4ff) is: Reuben, Simeon, Judah (Caleb), Issachar, Ephraim (Hoshea the son of Nun, otherwise known as Joshua), Benjamin, Zebulun, Manasseh, Dan, Asher, Naphtali, and Gad. There are a total of twelve tribes, Levi is again not included. Joshua's tribe of Ephraim is promoted. The usual order of prominence would continue with the other son of Leah, Zebulun. Instead, Issachar is followed by Ephraim and Zebulun by Manasseh. Thus the sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh are split apart. Benjamin, Joseph's little brother, follows Ephraim. A Jewish article observes that they are in chiastic order -- four sons of Leah, two sons of Rachel, son of Leah and son of Rachel (Joseph, that is Manasseh), four sons of maidservants. The sons of Joseph open and close the center of the chiasm. Since it is the tribes of Israel there is still order.

Not insignificantly the spies spied for forty days (Num 13:25) and at the end of this time of testing they, with the exception of Caleb (Num 13:30, 14:6) and Joshua (Num 14:6-9), returned demonstrating a lack of faith (Num 13:28-29, 32-33). That the point is about faith is clear in YHWH's question: "How long will this people despise me? And how long will they not believe in me, in spite of all the signs that I have done among them? (Num 14:11). Thus God says that He will make a nation of Moses but Moses interceded for Israel. The judgment: "none of the men who have seen my glory and my signs that I did in Egypt and in the wilderness, and yet have put me to the test these ten times and have not obeyed my voice, shall see the land that I swore to give to their fathers. And none of those who despised me shall see it (Num 14:22-23). The people failed the forty day test of the spies and the number of times the people tested God was full (ten), many followed by plagues (i.e., Exo 32:35, Num 11:33, 14:37). The ten unbelieving spies died in a plague and those twenty years and up in the census besides Caleb and Joshua later died in the wilderness (this would not include the Levites). Some a few verses later as the people presumptuously attacked the Amalekites and Canaanites (Num 14:39ff).

The theme of the gospel going to the nations also is prominent in this text. After all, Aaron and Miriam are complaining because Moses' wife is a Gentile and Moses pleads with his father-in-law to stay with them in the journey of faith. And yet all of the grumbling demonstrated a lack of faith in this generation of Israelites. As of this point in Scripture we still await the one who is the son of the Father spoken of by the servant in His house (Heb 3:5-6).

In the Wilderness, Still at Sinai: Numbers 1:1-10:10

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Fri, 17 Jul 2009 16:34:00 +0000

Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers are tied together because the Israelites arrived at Sinai with Exo 19:1 and began their journey from Sinai with Num 10:11. Thus the beginning of Numbers is meant to be read as a continuation of the story of Exodus and Leviticus. The reason for the title Numbers sticking is the census taking in the book. However, the Hebrew title, "In the wilderness [desert]" is more appropriate because the people begin the book in the desert and end the book in the desert. In Deuteronomy too, they are not yet in the land at the end. Therefore, the story of the Torah (Old Testament Gospels) in an of itself is incomplete and needs the Prophets (Old Testament Acts) just as the Gospels (New Testament Torah) awaited the giving of the Spirit in Acts (New Testament Prophets).

"In the Wilderness" is an Old Testament Gospel teaching "that the Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from the dead, and that repentance and forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem" and promising the Spirit on the Pentecost after Jesus' resurrection (Luke 24:46-49). The book tells us about two generations of Israel. The first characterized by unbelief and the second by faith. This section is the necessary background we need for the first generation.

The book begins with the setting "in the wilderness of Sinai" and "in the tent of meeting" and with the timing of day one, month two, year two after leaving Egypt (Num 1:1). You may remember that the calendar begins with the Exodus event. So this is two years and one full month later. But the timing of the Passover celebration recorded later, also "in the wilderness of Sinai" is day fourteen, month one, year two after leaving Egypt (Num 9:1-5). Fourteen is seven times two. But the point is that Num 9 takes place before Num 1, chronologically speaking.

The section starts well. The people stood up to be counted for holy war (Num 1:3). Those numbered were men twenty years old and up able to go to war. A man was called from each tribe to help. There are twelve tribes (this does not include the tribe of Levi, but does include both children of Joseph so that you still get twelve). Reuben had 46,500 (Num 1:21), Simeon had 59,300 (Num 1:23), Gad had 45,650 (Num 1:25), Judah had 74,600 (Num 1:27), Issachar had 54,400 (Num 1:29), Zebulun 57,400 (Num 1:31), Ephraim 40,500 (Num 1:33), Manasseh 32,200 (Num 1:35), Benjamin 35,400 (Num 1:37), Dan 62,700 (Num 1:39), Asher 41,500 (Num 1:41), Naphtali 53,400 (Num 1:43), plus the twelve who helped totals 603,550 (Num 1:46). The census follows a clear narrative pattern making it somewhat repetitious. It should not be surprising that Judah is most populous and even adding the two sons of Joseph together comes just short of Judah.

The order of the tribes in Num 1 is strange on first reading. Both the list of assistants and each tribe's census follows the same order except for Gad. The assistant's order of Dan, Asher, Gad, Naphtali is odd because they are not grouped by their mother or birth-order. The assistant's order follows their natural ranking among the sons of Jacob but the random order of these last four is another way of indicating their lesser status. In the census order itself, the movement of Gad to follow Reuben and Simeon prepares us for what will follow next (all as Iain Duguid observes in his commentary, p.41).

The second chapter shows the tabernacle at the center and the tribes arranged around it. Thus the tent of the King in the Ancient Near East is at the center (in other words, God is king). We mentioned this previously in the post about the tabernacle as heaven on earth on Exodus 25-31 and 35-40. But here we can add this observation Duguid makes: east of the tabernacle are the children of Leah (Issachar, Judah, and Zebulun), south of the tabernacle are the child of maidservants (Gad) and cursed children (Reuben and Simeon), west of the tabernacle are the children of Rachel (Manasseh, Ephraim, and Benjamin), and north of the tabernacle are the children of maidservants (Naphtali, Dan, and Asher). Thus there are three tribes on each side with the one in the middle leading that section.

Duguid also notes that the Levites are also arranged around the tabernacle with the priests on the east, the Kohathites carrying the most holy things on the south even though Kohath was Gershon's younger brother, the Gershonites carrying the holy things on the west, and the Merarites carrying the least holy things on the north. This arrangement is helpful for understanding later scenes like Num 16.

Duguid says, "Both elements that define the church -- the boundary and the center -- are important" (p.37). He calls the people of God "an edge-bounded group" who stand up to be counted (church membership) and "a center-focused group" who keep God at the center. Both ideas need to be held together: "your God will be my God and your people will be my people." Ultimately, Jesus is the boundary and the center -- that is, we are in Christ (boundary) and Jesus is Lord (center).

A genealogy of the sons of Aaron follows in the third chapter even reminding us of the fire incident (Num 3:4). The Levites belonged to God in place of the firstborn of each household (Num 3:12-13). They had guard duty with regard to the sanctuary and its furnishings but not military duty and so they were not counted in the census but they are numbered for this duty. Their guard duty included living between the people and the tabernacle to guard the people from it. There were 22,000 Levite males a month old and up (Lev 3:39) and there were 22,273 firstborn males in Israel (Num 3:43). Therefore, the other 273 had to be redeemed (Num 3:46ff). The Levitical sons of Kohath were then numbered in a census from age 30-50 (Num 4:2-3). These things were to prepare them to move the sanctuary on the journey. The same was done for the Levitical sons of Gershon (Num 4:22-23) and Merari (Num 4:29-30) for the same purpose.

Numbers 5 gives us some legal case studies in a narrative framework. First, they are to put the unclean outside the camp. Second, if they "break faith" they are to confess their sin and make restitution. And the third case is a special ordeal trial with water of bitterness for women suspected of adultery. Duguid classifies these cases as "sin as defilement," "sin as transgression," and "sin as unfaithfulness." And points the reader to Jesus as the solution to each.

Numbers 6 relates to us the Nazirite Vow. Duguid describes Nazarites as "a kind of temporary lay priest" (p.79). The Nazirites were set apart to YHWH by being set apart from alcohol and grapes, haircuts, and dead bodies (even immediate family). They are to be a microcosm of Israel, the kingdom of priests. The steps for cleansing are also mentioned should someone die suddenly in his presence and the steps for his offerings when the vow is complete are also described. And the Aaronic blessing is given, "YHWH bless you and keep you; YHWH make his face to shine upon you and be gracious to you; YHWH lift up his countenance upon you and give you peace" (Num 6:24-26). This was the blessing for the people of God.

Numbers 7 tells us about the twelve days of offerings in thanksgiving for the consecration of the tabernacle. The order of these offerings was from Judah, Issachar, Zebulon, Reuben, Simeon, Gad, Ephraim, Manasseh, Benjamin, Dan, Asher, and Naphtali. We can observe that they went in order from east, south, west, and north and by priority (thus Simeon before Gad and Manasseh before Benjamin, etc.) Afterwards an offering to set apart the Levites as the firstborn was given.

The whole section is set apart not only by location but also by the concluding phrase: "I am YHWH your God" (Num 10:10), a fitting way to end given its structural significance to ending paragraphs and other sections in the book of Leviticus.

The Gospel of Leviticus

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Thu, 02 Jul 2009 19:27:00 +0000

The Book of Leviticus is a book of good news because it teaches the forgiveness of sins through the appointed blood of atonement. Not that the blood of bulls and goats actually takes away sins (cf. Heb 10:4), but it points us to the blood that does -- that of the whole and spotless lamb Jesus Christ. The book shows that your sins cannot be atoned through the shedding of your own blood but only through the shedding of this blood. Offering a sacrifice was not a good work, but an ordinary means of grace. The way of salvation is narrow and it is not people-initiated but comes from God. All ancient peoples knew that they needed atonement, as their sacrificial systems showed, but salvation is from the Jews and in particular is from the priest-sacrifice of Jesus of Nazareth. And His sacrifice is applied through faith. Why did the true people of God offer sacrifices? Because they believed the promise of God to forgive sins and now we preach the forgiveness of sins in Jesus' name.

The nation of Israel was to be set apart as a holy nation both morally and outwardly. The distinctions between clean and unclean animals demonstrated the distinction between the nation of Israel and the Gentiles. While election in Christ is still good news, just as this showed the election of Israel among the nations, we are no longer set apart in such external things because forgiveness of sins is now proclaimed to all nations in Jesus Christ. And the elect of every nation have the Spirit, setting us apart starting with our hearts. Demands that Christians preserve a particular culture whether forty years old or four hundred years old or whatever have missed this change in what the good news looks like and because they are a man-made way of salvation are dangerous.

And the Holiness Code consists of two chiasms. The first concentrates on loving your neighbor as yourself and the second on loving God with all of your heart and soul. The fact that the former includes laws about loving God and the latter laws about loving neighbors shows that one cannot separate these ideas. And yet it is very clear that the former section stresses loving neighbors and aliens with Lev 19 at the center and the latter section on loving God with the blasphemy case at the center. And there is a chapter on sacrifices before each chiasm. The first time dealing with sacrifices alone and the second time before the loving God section on sacrifices and priests (where the priests are described as sacrifices -- need to be well and whole). Given these and other regulations that no longer continue in the Holiness Code, the code is a portion of Scripture that is much neglected. And yet this code is incredibly helpful in thinking through how we show our gratitude to God for the forgiveness of our sins due to the work of the priest-sacrifice Jesus Christ. And the appendix on sacrifices and oaths is very helpful for people to contemplate today given that oaths are very lightly taken at present.

The Holiness Code & Appendix (Lev 17-27)

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sat, 20 Jun 2009 20:37:00 +0000

Lev 17:10-12 makes an interesting point worth quoting: "If any one of the house of Israel or of the strangers who sojourn among them eats any blood, I will set my face against that person who eats blood and will cut him off from among his people. For the life of the flesh is in the blood, and I have given it for you on the altar to make atonement for your souls, for it is the blood that makes atonement by the life. Therefore I have said to the people of Israel, No person among you shall eat blood, neither shall any stranger who sojourns among you eat blood" (ESV).

Thus the reason the people cannot eat blood (a regulation that goes back to Gen 9:4) is that life is in the blood and the blood makes atonement by the life. In other words, because of the role of blood in sacrifice (a point made by Dr. Richard Belcher of RTS, lectures on iTunes, for why discharges of blood make you unclean) and because of the symbolism of blood as life you could not eat it. During the time of the apostles there was a transition (Acts 15:20) where they allowed eating all animals as clean but not the blood (returning us to Gen 9:3-4). This makes sense to keep in place at the time because sacrifices, though effectively done away with in Christ's one sacrifice, continued to be performed at the temple until it was destroyed in AD 70. So as long as the sacrificial system continued for the Jewish people, this was a way for Jews and Gentiles to have table fellowship. These thoughts are made provisionally, I am open to your comments and ideas. Nevertheless, it is clear that it is important to see that you cannot atone for yourself (discharges of blood make you unclean) and you must be atoned for only by the blood appointed by God. And today we Spiritually drink the blood of Jesus.

But the fact that we are still discussing Lev 11-16 themes as we have moved onto the holiness regulations is one reason that people use to dismiss one commandment today: "You shall not lie with a male as with a woman; it is an abomination" (Lev 18:22) and "If a man lies with a male as with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination; they shall surely be put to death; their blood is upon them" (Lev 20:13). [The civil dimension to this latter expression of the law no longer applies as the ancient nation of Israel no longer exists (i.e. the death penalty would be inappropriate in our nation).] Both regulations call male homosexual behavior an abomination. But the most common reason people find it easy to dismiss these regulations today is a failure to see the structure of the book and to confuse the moral, civil, and ceremonial dimensions of the law (the moral continues forever, not so with the civil and ceremonial, see the Westminster Standards).

Usually Lev 17-26 is called "the Holiness Code" and Lev 27 has been seen as an appendix to the book of Leviticus. This code deals with everyday life and includes a lot of diversity in content. Belcher suggests that the structure is sacrifices (Lev 17), mostly sexual relationships (Lev 18), center 1: various relationships (Lev 19), mostly sexual relationships with penalty (Lev 20); sacrifices (Lev 21-22), religious calendar (Lev 23), center 2: rules on the tabernacle and case law for blasphemy (Lev 24), Sabbath and Jubilee (Lev 25). Therefore, we will not be addressing the chapters in order but topically.

The structure of Chapter 17, as Wenham notes, is into four paragraphs after the first two introductory verses. Lev 17:3-7 regulates killing animals without offering them, Lev 17:8-9 with offering sacrifices outside the tabernacle, Lev 17:10-12 with the eating of blood, and Lev 17:13-16 with rules about hunting. Each paragraph follows a similar pattern, "If any...," the sentence of "cutting off" and each has a concluding statement. This chapter ties the themes of Lev 11-16 with Lev 18-27 and we will see the themes of Lev 11-16 elsewhere in the holiness code especially about the Day of Atonement.

Lev 21 and 22 are parallel then to Lev 17. Wenham observes that this should be divided into six sections, each of which ends with "I, YHWH, sanctify you [him, them]" (Lev 21:8, 15, 23, 22:9, 16, 32-33). The regulations related here have to do with the priests and sacrifices. Priests, like the sacrifices, were to be whole and well. This is particularly fitting for Christ who is our priest and sacrifice.

Wenham notes that Chapter 18, follows the Hittite treaty genre (I would add, as does this whole code generally, with Lev 26 giving the curses and blessings). It begins the historical prologue by introducing YHWH (Lev 18:2) and continues by contrasting the way the people of Israel are to live to the ways of the Egyptians (where they lived) and Canaanites (where they will live) (Lev 18:3). Instead of following the statutes of the Egyptians or Canaanites, the people of Israel "shall follow my [YHWH's] rules and keep my [YHWH's] statutes and walk in them" (Lev 18:4). And the next verse lays out the principle of the Mosaic covenant: "if a person does them [YHWH's statutes and rules], he shall live by them" (Lev 18:5). The regulations of Lev 18:6ff cover sexual relations and then the covenant curses are described in Lev 18:24ff.

As you could see from Lev 15, discharges of semen make you unclean so that you cannot be in the tabernacle, which keeps Israel from cultic prostitution like in the surrounding nations (cf. Lev 19:29-30). And Lev 18 builds on that regarding sexual relationships by defining incestuous relationships (marriage makes you one blood and flesh) and other (mostly, but not exclusively) sexual sins including homosexuality and bestiality. Wenham observes that seven times Lev 18 says the people of Israel are not to behave like the Canaanites and six times the chapter says "I am YHWH (your God)".

It is quite interesting that in this list of sins forbidden in Lev 18 is child sacrifice (Lev 18:21), then homosexual male relations (Lev 18:22), and then bestiality (Lev 18:23). You can see the same general order with a few other things in between in Lev 20, the parallel chapter, with child sacrifice (Lev 20:2-5), homosexual male relations (Lev 20:13), and bestiality (Lev 20:15-16). The issue of child sacrifice to Molech is one of spiritual adultery (Lev 20:5). Wenham observes that the latter chapter is structured by the phrases "I am YHWH your God" and "Keep my rules." Some regulations do appeal back to Lev 11-16 like forbidding sex with a woman during her menstrual impurity (Lev 20:18). The main theme connecting all of these laws is that these sins make the land unclean. Thus Lev 18:26-30 and 20:22-23 both warn that the land could vomit out the people for the same reason they were displacing the Canaanites.

Between these parallel chapters mostly about sexual relationships (Lev 18 and 20) is the most well known chapter Lev 19. Wenham diagrams the literary structure conclusively: each paragraph ends "I am YHWH (your God)," which reveals four paragraphs of religious duties, four paragraphs of duties to your neighbor, and eight paragraphs of other miscellaneous duties. The first four paragraphs end, "I am YHWH your God" (Lev 19:2b, 3, 4, 10). The second four paragraphs end, "I am YHWH" (Lev 19:12, 14, 16, 18). And the eight paragraphs that follow end with both the shorter (Lev 19:28, 30, 32, 37) and longer versions (Lev 19:25, 31, 34, 36) and open and end with "Keep my rules" (Lev 19:19, 37). While to my knowledge Wenham does not note this it reveals the following pattern: Longer, shorter, shorter, longer, shorter, longer, longer, shorter. Thus there are four groups of four: the first four end with the longer version, the second four with the shorter version, the third four longer, shorter, shorter, longer and the last four shorter, longer, longer, shorter. This is without a doubt intentional.

The second pair of four is very tightly structured, as Wenham notes, with each paragraph adding a new word for neighbor. Lev 19:11-12 uses "fellow citizen" (here translated "one another"). Lev 19:13-14 uses "neighbor." Lev 19:15-16 uses "fellow citizen" (here translated "neighbor") as well as "people," and "neighbor." Lev 19:17-18 adds "brother" to "fellow citizen" (again translated here "neighbor"), "people, and "neighbor." Thus all four paragraphs can be summarized, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself: I am YHWH."

In Lev 23 the phrase "I am YHWH your God" again shows us the structure. There are the spring festivals ending with Lev 23:22 and the fall festivals ending with Lev 23:43. These sections are further divided by the phrase, "it is a statute forever throughout your generations in all your dwellings (...)" (Lev 23:14, 21-22, 31-32, 41-42). Thus we see (1) Passover and the feast of unleavened bread and firstfruits, (2) the feast of weeks, (3) the festival of trumpets and day of atonement, and (4) the feast of booths. This is a religious calendar for the people.

Lev 25, appropriately parallel to the religious calendar, is the discussion of Jubilee with "I am YHWH your God" marking the closing of a section (Lev 25:17-22, 38, 55). The first section deals with the sabbath for the land, the second with the redemption of property, and the third with the redemption of slaves. The Gospel of Luke shows how Jesus proclaimed Jubilee even though there is no evidence it was ever done in the history of Israel.

So the second center of the holiness code deals with rules for the tabernacle, a case of blasphemy with the eye for an eye principle explained. Wenham notes that Lev 24:16-22 is a chiasm (he calls it concentric because there is not one center), but actually, the whole of Lev 24:13-23 is a chiasm. It begins with YHWH speaking to Moses (Lev 24:13), then the instruction, "Bring out of the camp..." (Lev 24:14), then the instruction, "Speak to the people of Israel..." (Lev 24:15), then the law is said to be for "the sojourner as well as the native," (Lev 24:16) the next two are "whoever takes a [human or animal] life..." (Lev 24:17-18), and then the center two are "it shall be done [given] to him" (Lev 24:19-20), then killing an animal, then killing a person, then "You shall have the same rule for the sojourner and for the native" (Lev 24:22), then Moses speaks, they "brought out of the camp the one who had cursed" (Lev 24:23), and the conclusion matching the opening: "Thus the people of Israel did as YHWH commanded Moses." It is interesting that this (beginning with Lev 24:10)is what continues the narrative of Leviticus. And it is interesting that the first center deals with the latter of the Ten Commandments and the second section deals with the former of the Ten Commandments. Lev 24:1-9 perhaps should be grouped with the previous section as it deals with the Sabbath and keeping the lamp burning.

Lev 26 lays out the blessings and curses of the Mosaic Law. It opens with "I am YHWH your God" and "I am YHWH" (Lev 26:1-2), the section ends "I am YHWH your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt" (Lev 26:13), and the whole chapter ends, "I am YHWH their God" and "I am YHWH" (Lev 26:44-45). The last verse of the chapter closes the holiness code with the narrative mark: "These are the statutes and rules and laws that YHWH made between himself and the people of Israel through Moses on Mount Sinai." Verse 13 ends the blessings, and verse 45 ends the curses. The curses can be further divided by noting "If you will not listen to me...I shall [punish] you ([again] sevenfold for your sins)" (Lev 26:14-16, 18, 21, 23-24, 27-28). On the other hand, Lev 26:40-45 offers restoration to the repentant. These blessings and curses fell upon Israel later in their history driving them into exile.

Lev 27, somewhat of an appendix about vows, resembles early chapters in Lev in that it is structured with "if a man..." phrases and "and if" phrases and the book ends with a similar narrative ending to the last chapter "These are the commandments that YHWH commanded Moses for the people of Israel on Mount Sinai" (Lev 27:34).

Lev 11-16 and the New Testament

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Wed, 17 Jun 2009 02:27:00 +0000

What follows is a list of some New Testament texts that assume information learned in Lev 11-16:

Matt 8:2-4 [Mark 1:40-45][Luke 5:12-15]
Matt 15:11, 17-20 [Mark 7:18-19, 20-23]
Matt 9:20 [Mark 5:25ff] [Luke 8:43ff]
Matt 10:8, 11:5 [Luke 7:22]
Matt 23:25-26
Matt 23:27
Mark 5:13
Luke 1:10, 21
Luke 2:22-24 (quoting Lev 12:8)
Luke 4:27
Luke 11:38-41
Luke 17:12-19
John 2:6
John 13:8-11
John 15:3
John 18:28
Acts 10:10-11:18
Acts 19:12
Rom 14:14-20
1 Cor 7:14, 8:7
2 Cor 6:16-17, 7:1
1 Thess 4:7
Titus 1:15
Heb 9:7, 12-13, 24-25, 28, 10:4, 19-20, 21-22, 23, etc.
Rev 18:2
Rev 21:27

Distinguishing Clean and Unclean (Lev 11-16)

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Mon, 15 Jun 2009 00:33:00 +0000

As the chart of Lev 8-10 reveals, the third panel (Lev 10) does not tell of Moses or Aaron offering sacrifices but instead says, "You are to distinguish between the holy and common, and between the unclean and the clean. And you are to teach the people of Israel all the statutes that YHWH has spoken to them by Moses" (Lev 10:10-11). Thus we can see a transition in Lev 8-10 from sacrifices (Lev 1-7) to distinguishing the unclean and the clean (Lev 11-16). The sacrifices (Lev 1-7), performed by the priests (Lev 8-10) were necessary to make many unclean things clean (Lev 11-16).

The chapter divisions in your English Bibles are helpful since each chapter covers a subject starting with "YHWH spoke to Moses." Lev 11 deals with unclean animals. Lev 12 with the uncleanness of childbirth. Lev 13 with unclean skin and fungus diseases and Lev 14 with their cleansing. Lev 15 with unclean bodily discharges. And then finally Lev 16 addresses the day of atonement when the tabernacle itself is cleansed. The day of atonement was necessary because of Israel's uncleannesses and their transgressions (Lev 16:16). Thus Wenham says, "chs. 11-15 provide essential background for understanding the significance of the day of atonement (16)" (161). He also noticed the connection with Lev 10:10.

There is a three-fold distinction of clean and unclean animals: Land, water, and sky animals. For land animals they could eat whatever parts the hoof, is cloven-footed, and chews the cud (Lev 11:3). Other land animals like the camel, rock badger, hare (each chews the cud but does not part the hoof) (Lev 11:4-6) and the pig (parts the hoof and is cloven-footed but does not chew the cud) (Lev 11:7) are unclean. The people were not to eat them, or touch their dead carcasses, because "they are unclean to you" (Lev 11:8).

For water animals, they could eat everything with fins and scales (Lev 11:9) but other water animals were "detestable to you" (Lev 11:10-12). And for the sky creatures, first are listed some "detestable" birds (Lev 11:13-19), then winged insects that go on all fours are said to be "detestable" (Lev 11:20) but then the next verse says there is an exception for those with jointed legs above their feet to hop on the ground (Lev 11:21) and lists those you could eat (Lev 11:22).

The rest of the chapter deals with the treatment of this uncleanness and mentions other animals that are unclean like mice and lizards. These regulations served to set Israel apart chosen from the nations as holy because YHWH is holy (Lev 11:44-45). This was symbolic for the division between holy Jews (represented by the chosen animals) and common Gentiles (represented by the animals that were not chosen). It is notable, as Wenham says, that animals were expected to keep Torah and those people or animals who drink blood or eat flesh without draining blood are unclean. Actually the law forbidding eating meat with the blood still in it predates Moses. Noah was told, "You shall not eat flesh with its life, that is, its blood" (Gen 9:4), which may explain why the apostles kept this prohibition (Acts 21:25). But nevertheless, the animals were set apart of God's election.

And even this verse in Gen 9 is not the first time that people were forbidden to eat certain things: Adam and Eve were forbidden to eat from one tree, though it is interesting that there are no unclean plants in Leviticus. However, the seriousness of the uncleanness for the people of Israel was relatively little since all that was required for cleansing when one came into contact with a dead carcass of an unclean animal was washing and waiting until evening. And the distinction between clean and unclean animals is abolished in the New Testament because the distinction between Jews and Gentiles is abolished in Christ.

Lev 12 is much shorter, but more serious since it includes sacrifices as part of the cleansing. Here we are looking at the uncleanness of childbirth. The numbers are significant: unclean and contagiously so for seven days for a boy (Lev 12:2) and fourteen days for a girl (Lev 12:5). She must stay at home for 33 days for a boy (Lev 12:4) and 66 days for a girl (Lev 12:5). Thus a total of 40 days for a boy and 80 days for a girl (traditional period of testing is 40 days or multiples thereof). The boy is circumcised on the eighth day (Lev 12:3). Circumcision is the sign of the covenant and failure to do it would cut off that son from his people. The offerings are to make atonement for her and to purify her from the discharge of blood (Lev 12:6-8). It has been suggested that we remember the increased pain of childbirth was a reminder of the curse due to original sin. Wenham notes that the structure of a period of uncleanness, sacrifice, summary, and provision for the poor reappears in other chapters in Leviticus (186).

Lev 13-14 deal with skin diseases. It may be that because these diseases are visible that they are singled out for ceremonial uncleanness. All diseases remind us of death and thus have something in common with issues of blood (blood symbolizing life). The skin diseases are classified based on what they look like on the outside. And periods of seven days are common to see if it gets better or worse to make a diagnosis. The priest, as a servant of the Lord, has declarative power here -- he declares if the person is clean or unclean based on the criteria in Scripture. The cleansing is more difficult, when it is possible, for such diseases. And these sacrifices are for atonement. And they prepare us for Jesus who cleanses many and the priests then are forced to declare them clean and then Jesus offers Himself up as a sacrifice for atonement of sin.

Lev 15 deals with unclean discharges first from men. The one who has a discharge waits seven days for his cleansing and washes his clothes and bathes his body (Lev 15:13). And on the eighth day he offers sacrifices (Lev 15:14). An emission of semen makes the man unclean until evening and he has to bathe his body (Lev 15:16). The chapter transitions to women by mentioning the case of a man who does so while laying with a woman (Lev 15:18). The next verse (Lev 15:19) discusses how menstrual impurity lasts for seven days and later verses deal also with situations where blood issues may last longer (Lev 15:25). The purpose statement is then given about defiling the tabernacle (Lev 15:31).

Lev 16 addresses the day of atonement. Given the atonement sacrifices of many of the previous chapters, we can see the need for a day of atonement. These are themes that seem odd to modern ears but ones that are consistent in the Old Testament. The themes run throughout Ezekiel, especially for our purposes in Ezek 44:23. The prophet Ezekiel even compares Israel's ways and deeds to the uncleanness of a woman in her menstrual impurity (Ezek 36:17) -- a comment that only makes sense given these chapters in Leviticus. He also mentions this particular impurity elsewhere (Ezek 18:6, 22:10). And the prophet is concerned with this issue of uncleanness so much that it appears repeatedly like when God says, "I will sprinkle clean water on you, and you shall be clean from all your uncleannesses, and from all your idols I will cleanse you" (Ezek 36:25). So there is a need for a more permanent removal of these uncleannesses than a single day of atonement each year could provide.

Aaron had to offer atonement for himself and his house first and then he could do so for the nation. The reason to "make atonement for the Holy Place" was "because of the uncleannesses of the people of Israel and because of their transgressions, all their sins. And so he shall do for the tent of meeting, which dwells with them in the midst of their uncleannesses" (Lev 16:16). One goat Aaron would put his hands on its head and "confess over it all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins. And he shall put them on the head of the goat and send it away into the wilderness" (Lev 16:21). This takes place on the tenth day of the seventh month (Lev 16:29).

The Structure of Ordination (Lev 8-10)

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Thu, 11 Jun 2009 17:44:00 +0000

Remembering that the laws were situated in a narrative framework, the narrative continues with the story of the ordination setting apart Aaron and his sons as priests. But these three chapters are set apart because while the rest of Leviticus has a narrative framework it is mostly legal material whereas these chapters are mostly narrative. As Wenham says, "The history provides a setting for the laws, not vice versa" (129).

Lev 8 spells out in more detail what Exodus ended saying shall happen (Exo 40:12-16). Those verses in Exodus lay out the parts of the ordination service that set apart Aaron and his sons as priests. There is a ceremonial washing element, they receive the priestly garments resembling the tabernacle (as Meredith Kline notes), and they are anointed with oil. Tremper Longman argues that it is possible that the narrative may not be in chronological order because Exodus 19:22-24 mentions priests (123). But such harmonization seems unnecessary since the author wanted it to be clear that no one in this kingdom of priests (Exo 19:6) would be permitted. Priests and people in Exo 19:24 then is simply two parts for the whole nation appropriate in the context like heavens and earth are two parts for the whole of creation.

The English chapter and verse numberings of Lev 8-10 are helpful to see the three-fold structure of this section. The sacrifices of Lev 1-3 also followed a three-fold arrangement. In Lev 8-10 the narrative approach can be seen by looking at key words and the order of events. In this approach to writing, not everything shows up in each panel. Take for example, chapter 8 begins "YHWH spoke to Moses" (Lev 8:1) and chapter 9 begins "Moses called Aaron" (Lev 9:1) but chapter ten is missing this element (and thus the problem that unfolds). It is not an accident that the verb in Lev 9:1 is "called" given this text is about ministry as priests. You can see a table of these chapters compared to each other in Wenham (133) and I have made a table based on it that you can download here.

Book One of Genesis also had a three-fold arrangement, ordination is a new creation event taking seven days (Lev 8), this time Aaron does not recapitulate the fall (Lev 9), but his two disobedient sons go the way of Cain (Lev 10). On day 8, Aaron's sacrifices are accepted (Lev 9) but the following chapter (10) shows us the rejection of his sons' offerings. Adam was the priest of the garden of Eden until driven out and Lev 10 even thematically resembles Gen 4 because Cain's offerings were rejected.

Wenham notes that there is a chiastic arrangement in chapter eight as to the commandments and their fulfillment. The first command was about Aaron's clothes (Lev 8:2) and the second about assembling the people (Lev 8:3), but the fulfillment sees the congregation assembled (Lev 8:4-5) before Aaron's clothes (Lev 8:6-9). I have mentioned before that Aaron's clothes are important because they represent the glory of the image of God (parallel to Moses having a shining face). So here again we have a creation allusion and thankfully Aaron does not lose the renewed image (Lev 10:6).

As in Exodus, Moses stands in for God. When Moses is satisfied you assume that God is too (Lev 10:20, which uses a verb meaning 'to be good'), when Moses speaks it is the word of God (even when not explicitly said, cf. Lev 10:4, 6-7 as Wenham notes). And Moses acts as the priest until the ordination of Aaron and his sons is complete, while Aaron and his sons perform the role of the common worshiper. We should never overlook that the priests in this system were themselves needing forgiveness.

Then the death of two of Aaron's sons near the end of this narrative is yet another reminder (after the Exodus golden-calf incident) that the priests needed to follow God's worship regulations precisely. This is a theme we have highlighted repeatedly. In particular, the common phrase "as YHWH commanded Moses" is very prevalent in these chapters. Wenham mentions that chapter 8 closely quotes Exo 29 in order to stress their strict obedience to the commandments. Chapter 9 paraphrases Lev 1-7. The problem opening chapter 10 is that two of Aaron's sons did something that was not commanded by God (Lev 10:1), but later in the chapter the participants do precisely what is right. This is further demonstration of the regulative principle of worship (as it has come to be known in Reformed theology). The regulative principle is that we not only forbid in worship what Scripture forbids but the only elements allowed in worship are commanded in Scripture.

We can see then how Moses points to Jesus Christ. Moses is the mediator who acts as priest until the priests are ordained. Jesus is the prophet greater than Moses who continues to ordain leaders in His church and He is a priest forever and is interceding on our behalf in the heavenly tabernacle. Jesus is the prophet like Moses whose words are the very word of God. Jesus is the priest greater than the priesthood of Aaron and his sons. Jesus is the very glory-image of the invisible God and He is the way to worship God. Jesus, the God-man, is the mediator that Moses and the priesthood foreshadowed between God and people. The main difference is that Jesus is without sin and the sacrifice of His death is once-for-all.

It is no accident that ordination services today remember our baptisms (a ceremonial washing), often include the giving of symbols of ministry (often garment related), and laying on of hands (something we have seen with the sacrifices in Leviticus). Today we have the priesthood of all believers (as well as the prophethood of all believers) but Christ still sets some apart by ordination to serve in particular ways, especially to regulate worship according to the word of God and to teach the word of God.

The Structure and Content of Leviticus 1-7

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Fri, 29 May 2009 19:24:00 +0000

In preparing this post I am selectively looking at commentaries by Gordon Wenham (1979) NICOT and S.H. Kellogg (1891). I would also recommend Tremper Longman III's Immanuel in Our Place: Seeing Christ in Israel's Worship in The Gospel according to the Old Testament series and Vern Poythress' The Shadow of Christ in the Law of Moses.

Of the Old Testament Gospels, Leviticus is the most neglected book. The Torah are Old Testament Gospels and give us at least two different perspectives on the teaching ministry of Moses (Gen-Num compared to Deuteronomy, which means 'second law') just as the NT gives us four perspectives on the teaching ministry of Jesus. We have seen that the structure of the Pentateuch follows a narrative, poetry, epilogue pattern. Genesis does this. Exodus through Numbers, read together, do this. And Deuteronomy follows this pattern (with an additional poem and epilogue telling us about the death of Moses). But the point for Leviticus is that these laws are part of the narrative begun in Exodus and finished in Numbers (where a poem and epilogue follow). Therefore, the laws of Leviticus are set within a narrative framework.

Specifically, the narrative continues the story of Exodus because at the end of Exodus (Exo 40:34-38) we are told that the cloud covered the tent of meeting and the glory of YHWH filled the tabernacle. Lev 1:1 begins with the same setting saying, YHWH called Moses from the tent of meeting. It is important that the word is "called" rather than "said" or something similar. The book is about the calling of Israel to be set apart as a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exo 19:6). And the laws set forth in the book set Israel apart as different from the world so that they might fulfill their calling to reach the world.

It is also worth noting that the order of the priest's section in Lev 6-7 (in the Hebrew verse numbering, in English Bibles this begins with Lev 6:8) reflects the order of the offerings done in Exo 29. Moreover, Lev 1-5 was revealed in the tabernacle, Exo 29 and Lev 6-7 are revealed on Sinai. We will see that Lev 1-5 is arranged theologically and thematically, but Lev 6-7 is arranged by order of frequency. In any case, the whole of Lev 1-7 continues to show us that God is very concerned with the way we worship and we know that the way is ultimately Jesus Christ who fulfills these sacrifices and is our priest.

I think that the reason reading Leviticus is so difficult is that we do not try to outline it. Lev 1-7 is about sacrifice laws with Lev 1-5 (Eng. 6:7) giving instructions for common worshipers and Lev 6-7 (Eng 6:8ff) giving instructions for the priests. Using English verse numbers: the order of the offerings in Lev 1-6:7 is the burnt offering (1), the cereal offering (2), the peace offering (3), the purification offering (4:1-5:13), and the reparation offering (5:14-6:7). The order of the offerings in the instructions for the priests is the burnt offering (Lev 6:8-13), the cereal offering (Lev 6:14-18), the priest's cereal offering (Lev 6:19-23), the purification offering (Lev 6:24-30), the reparation offering (Lev 7:1-10), and the peace offering (Lev 7:11-36). This is followed in Wenham's outline, which this paragraph borrows, by two verses of summary (Lev 7:37-38). The order of the priest's instructions is by frequency performed with the peace offering last because it was an optional sacrifice done least often.

Looking at the common worshiper's instructions, it also makes sense to begin with the burnt offering because it was the most common offering, even if it was not first when you are doing more than one kind of offering. For example, you would do a purification offering before the burnt offering (Lev 9). It appears that the order of these offerings is to make them easier to learn/teach and it keeps Moses from being too repetitive because earlier portions are assumed later. The cereal and peace offerings were also food offerings with a pleasing aroma to YHWH, which is why these three are next to each other.

In the first chapter, after two introductory verses, each section on the burnt offering ends "a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH" (Lev 1:9, 13, 17): the first section (Lev 1:3-9) deals with burnt offerings of cattle, the second (Lev 1:10-13) with burnt offerings of sheep or goats and the third section (Lev 1:14-17) with burnt offerings of birds. Cattle are more valuable than sheep or goats, and those herd animals more than birds. This is the reason for the order. For the sake of brevity, the second and third situations assume material included in the first (the longest description).

Burnt offerings had been offered at key times already in the Torah including right after the flood and the Ram instead of Isaac. And Jesus' death, as the new Isaac, was likened to the burnt offering (Eph 5:2, 1 Pet 1:18-19), though once for all (Heb 7:27). All of these offerings under the laity section are those brought by the people. For the burnt offering of cattle or sheep or goats the text required a male without blemish. The laying on of hands (Lev 1:4) conveyed a transfer from the worshipper to that animal being sacrificed. And the burnt offering "shall be accepted for him to make atonement for him" (Lev 1:4). The offering up of the one with whom the Father was "well pleased" was thus the fulfillment of the burnt offering with a pleasing aroma to the LORD (Lev 1:9, 13, 17).

The second chapter of Leviticus covers the grain offerings. The first two sections end saying that the priest shall burn some of the food offering as its memorial portion on the altar, "a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH. But the rest of the grain offering shall be for Aaron and his sons; it is a most holy part of YHWH's food offerings" (Lev 2:2-3, 9-10). The first section deals with raw grain offerings and the second section with unleavened baked grain offerings. The third section deals with general rules about grain offerings and allows for those that are not for a pleasing aroma to YHWH (Lev 2:12) and other firstfruits grain offerings. The common theme in the third section is that they are firstfruits offerings and the section ends "it is a food offering to YHWH" (Lev 2:16). Usually it would follow the burnt offering. Therefore, the priest having pronounced your sins forgiven you would respond with a cereal offering of the produce of your land. The priests relied on these offerings for food and burned a portion as their offering to God.

The third chapter of Leviticus covers the peace offerings. Here again we have three sections. The first ends "it is a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH" (Lev 3:5) and the second ends "a food offering to YHWH" (Lev 3:11) and the third has a longer ending (Lev 3:16-17). The first section covers cattle, the second sheep, and the third goats. Here the offering can be male or female but must still be without blemish. There is again a laying on of hands. Many of the things we said about the burnt offerings apply here, but the peace offering is less important than the burnt offering. One difference not noted here is that the worshiper could enjoy a portion of the offering so that it is a feast for YHWH, the priests, and the worshipers. This is implied because only certain parts of the animal are mentioned for burning on top of the burnt offering. We discover in the priest's section on this offering that it could be for confession, vows, or free-will.

Leviticus 4 and 5, on the purification offering (4:1-5:13) and the reparation offering (5:14-6:7) have a similar structure to each other. Here the value of the animal offered is not important. As Wenham puts it, "Here the most important distinction is between inadvertent sins and sins of omission or deliberate sins. The status of the sinners who bring the offerings is also important" (87). This yields the following table: purification offerings for unintentional sins (Lev 4:1-35), purification offerings for sins of omission (Lev 5:1-13), reparation offerings for unintentional sins (Lev 5:14-19), reparation offerings for intentional sins (Lev 6:1-7). Each section begins, "If anyone sins..." and ends "And the priest shall make atonement for him...and he shall be forgiven...." These sections can be divided further by noting the "if" or in the case of Lev 4:22 "when" clauses. For unintentional sin, blood can be sprinkled in the holy place for the high priest and for the whole congregation, smeared on the main altar for the tribal leader, a worshiper offering a goat, a worshiper offering a lamb. For sins of omission, the offering can be a lamb or goat, birds, or flour. These offerings were less valuable and done less often than the burnt offering. Nevertheless, these offerings show us (1) the problem of unintentional sin, (2) that our sin (intentional or not) makes it impossible for God to be with us without confession of sin, restitution where appropriate (the NT gospels give examples), and a sacrifice, and (3) that the sins of leaders are more serious than the rest of the congregation.

Some notes on the priest's instructions: the fire that they needed to keep going for the burnt offerings (Lev 6:13) was lit by God from heaven (Lev 9:24, cf. 2 Chronicles 7:1); these instructions are detailed as to what portions the priest could eat, if any, and what portions they tithed to God; detailed about how long they had to eat it; and most of this section (by contrast to Lev 1-6:7) is to be spoken to Aaron and his sons except the two asides about the peace offerings starting with Lev 7:22 and 7:28. Remember that portions of the peace offerings could be eaten by the common worshiper bringing it.

Kellogg reflects,

Of what use can the book of Leviticus be to believers now? We answer, first, that it is to us, just as much as to ancient Israel, a revelation of the character of God. It is even a clearer revelation of God's character to us than to them ; for Christ has come as the Fulfiller, and thus the Interpreter, of the law. And God has not changed. He is still exactly what He was when He called to Moses out of the tent of meeting or spoke to him at Mount Sinai. He is just as holy as then ; just as intolerant of sin as then ; just as merciful to the penitent sinner who presents in faith the appointed blood of atonement, as He was then (24-25).

The Image of God and the Golden Calf (Exo 32-34)

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Fri, 08 May 2009 15:40:00 +0000

The Second Commandment is the focus of the ark, tabernacle, golden calf, tabernacle ark narrative in Exodus. Note the chiasm puts the text on the golden calf (Exo 32-34) at the center, which is why we are addressing it separately for emphasis. That the building of the tabernacle and ark begins after this false worship is a demonstration of God's grace and mercy. These central chapters tell us of Israel's rebellion against the authority of God, the mediation of Moses for the people, and the restoration of the people.

The Heidelberg Catechism says regarding the second commandment: "That we should not represent him or worship him in any other manner than he has commanded in his word" (96). All of our confessions that address the second commandment agree (cf. the Scots Confession, Heidelberg Catechism, Second Helvetic Confession, and the Westminster Standards). Making such images and worshiping using those images are the two things addressed by the commandment. This reflects the wording of the second commandment (as numbered by Reformed theologians): "You shall not make for yourself an idol, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. You shall not worship [bow down to] them or serve them" (Exo 20:4-5, NASB).

Keep in mind that this is a summary of a whole category of sins. The underlying issue is whether Israel will worship God the way that He has revealed. And ultimately this points us to Jesus, whom we worship, as the revealed image of God. This is only possible because humanity was made in the image of God -- this is why Jesus could be fully human and fully divine. Nevertheless, the first has more to do with whom we worship and the second with the way we worship. And Jesus is the way.

The people of Israel represented God with a golden calf and worshiped God using that calf. While this distinction may not apply to the masses, the more sophisticated among them might argue (keeping with the culture of the Ancient Near East (ANE)) that the golden calf was not meant to be God but a footstool or throne for God. In other words, God rides the golden calf. Even so, making the golden calf was a sinful act breaking the second commandment. And this was compounded when they used the golden calf in worship. This is a recurring sin in Israel. For example, see the Gideon narrative (Judges 8:22-27). In both situations the people were not attempting to worship a false god. They were attempting to worship the true God in a way he had not revealed.

Translations communicate the serious failure in their effort to worship the true God by calling what they worship "gods" (Exo 32:1, 4, 8, 23, and 31). The word "gods" and the word "God" in the Hebrew are the exact same form. We translate this gods, even though there is only one calf, because of the plural form of other words in the Hebrew clause. However, it is safe to say that the people think they are worshiping YHWH just using this calf instead of waiting for the ark that has not yet been built. Aaron even says, "Tomorrow will be a feast to YHWH" (Exo 32:5). The God who brought them up out of the land of Egypt (Exo 32:4) is now being represented with this calf. In fact, this allusion to the prologue of the Ten Commandments (Exo 20:2) shows us that they are starting their own religion.

It is helpful to compare and contrast true and false religion in Exodus. Instead of the ark, in Exo 32 we have the golden calf. Both were made of gold and both were designed to be the footstool or throne of YHWH God. The difference is that God revealed the pattern for the construction of the ark, whereas the golden calf was man's religion. Instead of the festival to YHWH (Exo 10:9, 12:14, 13:6) the people would be doing after the Exodus event (that is, Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread and also in contrast to the meal with the elders on Mount Sinai), there is a new festival to YHWH initiated by Aaron. Both true and false worship in Exodus shared the same high priest. But when it is true worship Aaron would do what God has revealed, when it is false worship Aaron would act on his own. Instead of the Song of Moses and Miriam there is new singing. In many respects the festival is a parody of the victory celebration after the Exodus event. But the most fundamental difference is the law. Both have the prologue to the Ten Commandments (Exo 20:2, 32:4) but the false religion does not have the commandments. Thus Moses breaks the tablets of the Ten Commandments as a prophetic statement that they are not worthy to have them.

Note that when talking with Moses, God calls the people of Israel "your people" (cf. Exo 32:7). This is similar to Ezekiel 33 (see the sermon blog). And God proposes to make Moses a new Abraham by starting over with Moses (Exo 32:10). But Moses, as a prophet, intercedes for the people by reminding God of His promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Israel (an interesting choice since usually Scripture says, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob) (Exo 32:13) and by reminding God that they are not only Moses' people but they are "your people" (Exo 32:11ff). The reminder refers also to the reputation/name of YHWH (Exo 32:12). And God relented -- He changed His mind. Prayer changes things. Moses is finally excelling as a mediator, but still shows us our need for Jesus who is the perfect mediator.

And Moses comes down and gets Joshua, who is unaware of what is going on in the camp, and they went into the camp and destroyed the idol and made the people of Israel drink the powder left over from it. Moses confronted Aaron about it. Aaron had been confronted by an angry mob to begin the chapter (Exo 32:1) and now he appeals to that (Exo 32:21ff). His answer about throwing the gold into the fire and out came the golden calf directly contradicts what the text earlier said Aaron did (Exo 32: 4, 24). But nonetheless the Levites were the only ones who sided with Moses and YHWH (Exo 32:26) and slaughtered three thousand of the men of Israel.

And Moses went back up on the mountain and continued his intercession even wishing to be blotted out of the book of life in their place (Exo 32:32ff). And YHWH sent a plague on the people (Exo 32:35). Exodus 33 continues the intercession. The issue is whether Israel would be heaven on earth -- whether God be in their midst (see the previous post). The problem is that God is holy and would consume His people for their sins. But Moses insists that God must go with His people.

The restoration of Israel as the kingdom of priests and a holy nation then begins. Moses gets to see the glory of God (Exo 33:22). Moses gets another two tablets of the Ten Commandments. The covenant is renewed. A couple observations: note Exo 34:17 on the Second Commandment (only mentioning that they "shall not make" and not the other half "shall not worship") and the next verse mentions the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Exo 34:18) and another mentions the Feast of Weeks (Exo 34:22). He wrote on the tablets the words of the covenant, the ten words (Exo 34:28). Here again we see the forty days and nights. The point in all of this is to say that things are back on track in contrast with the golden calf worship episode. And Moses' face shined (Exo 34:29ff). This is part of the image-glory of God. He is being renewed in the image of God (the theme of the image of God therefore covers the entire section of Exo 32-34). Paul would refer to this in 2 Cor 3:7-18.

Thus together with the section we looked at last time we come to the end of Exodus, but structurally we have not yet come to an end to the book. The laws of Leviticus will continue the narrative from here. We have not yet seen the poetry and epilogue.

"Heaven on Earth," or "God with Us" (Exo 25-31 and 35-40)

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sat, 02 May 2009 15:46:00 +0000

The content of chapters 25-31 is essentially the same as 35-40 except the order is chiastic. The instructions are for the ark first and then the tabernacle second. But when they are built the tabernacle is first and the ark is second. In any case, it is incredibly important that 35-40 reflects 25-31 because of what happens in Exo 32-34 -- the Golden Calf episode. We should note in the next post how the Golden Calf contrasts with the tabernacle and ark. But for now the basic point is that this section of Scripture is concerned with the Second Commandment. The Second Commandment forbids worship that is not according to the pattern God has revealed in His word and commands that we worship according to the pattern God has revealed in His word. It is very important that Moses has it built exactly right (Exo 25:8-9).

This sanctuary, one of the reasons it is inappropriate to call the place where you worship a church sanctuary (the people are the church sanctuary), is to be a reflection of the heavenly sanctuary (cf. Heb 8:5). The pattern is very important. God initiated the building project and provided the materials, which came from the plunder of Egypt.

The tabernacle has a three part structure for different levels of holiness. The same pattern can be found back in Exo 24:1-18 when we were looking at Mount Sinai. Sinai and the Tabernacle are earthly replicas of the heavenly sanctuary of God. As things get closer to the ark they are more holy and the materials are more expensive (bronze, to silver, to gold, then to fine gold). Also, fewer and fewer people are permitted to enter as you get closer to the ark: any and all can be outside the camp, inside the camp only ritually clean Israelites can come, in the courtyard the laypeople could come to bring ritually clean animals for sacrifice, in the tabernacle only priest and Levites could come, and the high priest could only enter the holy of holies (a superlative -- the holiest place) once a year on the Day of Atonement. Creation itself is a temple/tabernacle: the earth is the footstool of God's cosmic temple/tabernacle. The three fold division is earth, visible heavens, invisible heaven of heavens (thus we are back to seeing connections with Gen 1).

The tabernacle is God's sanctuary on earth. The ark is His throne (cf. Jer 3:16-17) or the footstool of His throne (1 Chron 28:2). In the ark were the stone tablets of the covenant. It was common in the ancient near east (ANE) to have two copies of a covenant. The copies would be deposited in the temple of the gods of the greater king (the suzerain) and the lesser king (his vassal). Since there is only one God and the covenant is between Him and His people, the two copies of the covenant (the Ten Commandments tablets) are put in the tabernacle. The tabernacle (a tent) is at the center of the camp where ordinarily in the ANE the king would put his tent. Therefore, you are meant to connect the role of the Tabernacle with God's rule as King over Israel. It is a picture of heaven on earth -- the world as it should be -- God with us.

The creation of the tabernacle is therefore a re-creation event -- a new creation event. The Spirit is involved in both as creation in Gen 1 is the work of the Spirit of God (Gen 1:2) and those who work on the tabernacle are given the Spirit (Exo 35:31). Also the phrase "YHWH said to Moses" occurs seven times during the instructions (the first six: Exo 25:1, 30:11, 17, 22, 34, 31:1), the last time (Exo 31:12) introducing the instructions for the Sabbath. Moreover, (cf. Exo 39:32, 43) when the work is finished, Moses blesses the people and he inspects the work like God does when God declares the creation good (Exo 39:43). And the tabernacle is set up "on the first day of the first month in the second year" (Exo 40:17, NIV). Remember the first month was changed to reflect the Exodus event (Exo 12:2).

The first microcosmic picture of heaven on earth we have is the Garden of Eden. We should associate the menorah with Eden as its description resembles a tree. It is on fire, which may also mean to remind us of the burning bush. The references to images of cherubim should remind us that they guard the way to the tree of life in the epilogue of Gen 3. The tabernacle is a microcosm of heaven on earth.

As the tabernacle represented God's presence with his people on earth, the incarnation fulfills this Immanuel (God with us) principle. As John 1:14 should be best translated, "And the Word became flesh and tabernacled among us, and we looked at his glory, glory as the only one from the Father, full of grace and truth." And now Jesus is seated at the right hand of God the Father in the heavenly tabernacle. The OT priests ministered in the earthy shadow and copy of the tabernacle of heaven, but Jesus intercedes for us from the seat of power.

And our bodies are tabernacles for the Spirit. We are being clothed with a heavenly sanctuary (2 Cor 5:1-4). This means that our actions should flow out of our identity as holy ground. Our bodies were originally made to replicate the heavenly tabernacle (being made in the image of God). And we see a hint of this recovery of the image glory when Moses transfigured face shines and from the description of Aaron's robes. (The division of the office of mediator into prophet (Moses) and priest (Aaron) was a division of glory. This office, never meant to be separated, is reunited in Jesus). If you want to explore the significance of Aaron's robe, compare it with the tabernacle and recall those things we said about the tabernacle (there are even seven day patterns).

The book of Exodus is about New Creation. It is a creation where the rule of God (the kingdom of Heaven/God) is reestablished -- heaven on earth -- a creation where God and his people can live in harmony forevermore. This is why the book says so much about the building of the tabernacle.

I have simply retyped and reworded an earlier lecture I gave on this material that is not sourced but the teaching here is a combination of Meredith Kline and Peter Enns.

Attitude of Gratitude (Exo 19:1-24:18)

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sat, 18 Apr 2009 18:44:00 +0000

First and foremost it is important to observe that the giving of the law comes after the Exodus salvation event. Thus under the Old and New Covenants a major reason for the law is to know how to display an attitude of gratitude for salvation. The people are not given the law in order to earn salvation. They were saved by what God did for them. Thus the theme: "You yourselves have seen what I did to the Egyptians" (Exo 19:4). Their response is to obey his law so that they may be used to the end God desires. That is, as a kingdom of priests to intercede for the nations the way that Moses intercedes for Israel (Exo 19:5, cf. 1 Peter 2:4-10). Chapter 19 is the prelude to and preparation for the giving of the Ten Commandments.

The people are being set apart as the treasured possession of God among the nations upon the condition of obedience (Exo 19:5). Here we are to see similarity with the conditional covenant with Abraham (see discussion on Book Six). This is a conditional covenant they ultimately would not keep, but the unconditional covenant with Abraham would continue. Like they would later when ratifying the covenant (i.e. Josh 24:18), the people here (Exo 19:8) and later in this section (Exo 24:3, 7) say that they will do all the words of the LORD.

Note the context of the giving of the Ten Commandments. God is coming down in a thick cloud onto the mountain. The people hear the Ten Commandments from God speaking from heaven. Therefore, the people had to prepare spiritually -- ritually for his coming. Anyone who touches the mountain without authorization from God will die (Exo 19:12). The people stand at the foot of the mountain to meet God and hear the Ten Commandments (Exo 19:17). The sound of the LORD is thunder -- the sound of a huge army. This reminds us of the terror of The Day back in Genesis 3 when God came down on Mount Eden. Only Moses and Aaron are able to go up on the mountain at this point. And God spoke. The people will respond by noting their need for a mediator (Exo 20:19).

And God establishes the covenant -- a treaty with his vassal nation. It follows the normal ancient near eastern treaty format. God introduces himself and gives a historical prologue (Exo 20:2). And then lays out the ten stipulations of the covenant. This is a summary of the law. The Reformed understanding of how to number the commandments highlights idolatry (Exo 20:4-6) as a separate commandment from the first (Exo 20:3). Thus the commandment concerning idolatry deals with how we worship whereas the first commandment concerns who we worship. As a summary of the laws regarding how we worship, this is the most serious example. But it represents all of the regulations of worship in Scripture. This shows why Reformed theology is concerned that we only worship God as He has revealed that He desires to be worshiped in His word. Other traditions have to divide up the commandment on coveting to count to ten and are more open to including man-made traditions in worship. It is significant that there are TEN -- the number of fullness.

These commandments point us back to the salvation from Egypt and to creation. These commandments are a summary of the moral law of the covenant of creation. That the first commandment (Exo 20:3) was in force at the time of creation is beyond dispute. The Westminster Standards note that "before me" (Exo 20:3) means in the presence of the true God. The plagues and Exodus event showed that the LORD was greater than all other gods. The LORD is the God who created the heavens and the earth (Gen 2:4). The second commandment (Exo 20:4-6) points us to creation because humankind is made in the image of God (Gen 1:27). This is why the LORD could come as a person -- Jesus. This is why we are not to make images of God. Note the contrast of generations under curse (three and four) with those showing loyal-love (thousands) (Exo 20:5-6).

I will not demonstrate each commandment in this manner, but know that all of them point us back to creation. The Ten Commandments, as related here in Exodus, does this explicitly with the Sabbath ("for in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea..." Exo 20:11). The next commandment points us forward to the Promised Land (Exo 20:12). These are the conditional covenant stipulations for remaining in the land as a kingdom of priests. We have shown elsewhere that the commandment regarding adultery arises from creation. The commandment regarding murder points us to the same issues as the second commandment -- we are made in the image of God.

The Book of the Covenant (Exo 20:22-23:19) follows the Ten Commandments. And the theme is that the people have seen that the LORD spoke to them from heaven (Exo 20:22). Enns notes in his commentary (pp.440-441) that the Book follows a pattern beginning with worship (Exo 20:22-26), then social responsibility (Exo 21:1-22:17), then worship and social responsibility (Exo 22:18-23:19). These laws are not exhaustive but representative of the legal code of Israel. They cover such things as (worship) idols and altars, (social responsibility) slavery, injuring others, injuries from animals, and personal property. And the final section with both alternates worship, social responsibility, worship, social responsibility, worship (note that it begins and ends with worship). Loving God and loving your neighbor are thus shown to be intricately related. The last social responsibility section ends with the law about not oppressing a sojourner because you were sojourners in Egypt (Exo 23:9).

Then the text changes focus to the conquest of the Promised Land (Exo 23:20-33). The primary reason for destroying the people in the land is so that they will not cause Israel to sin and thus keep Israel from being a blessing to the nations. Sending terror before Israel and hornets before Israel are parallel ideas (Exo 23:27-28). These are not literal hornets -- the idea is that the people will stand in dread of invading Israel.

And this section ends with the seventy (ten times seven) elders of Israel hearing the Book of the Covenant and seeing God on the mountain (Exo 24:10) and having a covenant meal together (Exo 24:11). Almost makes one think of Passover as the unconditional covenant meal and this meal on the mountain as the conditional covenant meal. And Moses went up on the mountain to receive the Ten Commandments in written form. There is a Sabbath pattern (Exo 24:16) and Moses was on the mountain for a highly significant forty days and forty nights (Exo 24:18). Temptation time.

Going to Sinai (15:22-18:27)

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sat, 11 Apr 2009 14:22:00 +0000

The trip to Sinai starts off with the complaining continuing. We saw the theme of grumbling before the salvation in the Sea of Reeds/Extinction and here we see it again. It is important that it is directed at God and His anointed (Moses) because you will see the same thing happened to His anointed one (Jesus). It all began back when Moses killed the Egyptian and tried to break up a fight amongst the Hebrews. But that grumbling response of the Hebrews was in stark contrast to the reception that Moses had from Jethro's daughters when he saved them (Exodus 2:11-20). In this section we will see Jethro again. This time his reception is in contrast to the grumbling nation of Israel but even more in contrast to the Amalekites. Amalek was the son of Esau's concubine (see our discussion of Genesis 36:12).

The verse after the Song of Miriam mentions that Israel had gone for three days without water in the desert (Exo 15:22). When they finally found water it was bitter (Exo 15:23). So the people grumbled against Moses (Exo 15:24). God turned the bitter water into sweet water. God had Moses throw a log into the water and then the water became sweet (Exo 15:25). This is a picture of the gospel movement from death to life. It is the movement from diseased to healed. The LORD tested them (Exo 15:25). He tells them that if they listen to Him (literally 'listen to the voice of,' which is an idiom for obey) then he will not visit them with the diseases he brought on Egypt (Exo 15:26). Thus if they disobey the plagues will fall upon Israel. This eventually happened and ultimately happened for Christ.

To summarize -- grumbling about water, God tested them.

Then theme of grumbling continues as the word tells us, "And the whole congregation of the people of Israel grumbled against Moses and Aaron in the wilderness" and they accused Moses and Aaron of bringing them into the wilderness to starve when they were full back in Egypt (Exo 16:2-3). They have a selective memory.

And the LORD tested them to see "if they will walk in [His] law or not" with "bread from heaven" (Exo 16:4). On the sixth day they got a double portion but the first five days of the week they would get a day's portion. Since they have accused Moses and Aaron of brining them into the wilderness to starve, Moses tells them that this bread from heaven will show that the LORD brought them out of Egypt and into the wilderness. Moses tells them that they have been grumbling against the LORD. He says, "For what are we, that you grumble against us?" (Exo 16:7). Meat in the evening and bread in the morning will show them that grumbling against Moses and Aaron is really grumbling against the LORD (Exo 16:8). And they got quail in the evening and bread from heaven in the morning. They called the bread from heaven "manna" meaning, "What is it?" because they did not know what it was (Exo 16:15).

The manna was a test because when they tried to keep some left overs they bred worms and stank (Exo 16:20). God was training them to trust Him for their daily bread. And the double portion on the sixth day did keep for the seventh day without going bad so that they could keep Sabbath. It is instructive that they were required to keep Sabbath before the giving of the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments was a summary of the law from creation. But that first Sabbath after the Exodus Event they went and tried to gather manna and the LORD said, "How long will you refuse to keep my commandments and my laws?" (Exo 16:28). It is significant that the manna tasted sweet like wafers made with honey because the Promised Land was a land flowing with milk and honey. Thus the manna was a reminder to them of where they were going and of God turning the bitter water sweet. And they kept some manna as a reminder to all generations.

To summarize -- grumbling about food (complaint that they were brought into the wilderness to starve), God tested them.

The next chapter begins with the same grumbling: "the people quarreled with Moses" about water to drink (Exo 17:2). And they again accused him of bringing them into the wilderness to kill them -- this time with thirst. Moses asks them "Why do you test the LORD?" (Exo 17:2). Here Moses brings water from the rock by striking the rock where the LORD was standing.

To summarize -- grumbling about water again (complaint that they were brought into the wilderness to die of thirst), Israel tested God (Exo 17:2 and 17:7).

This is something we see in the gospels as Satan and then the elders and chief priests, etc., all tested Jesus. It is instructive that Moses notes that the people are ready to stone him (Exo 17:4). And because the wilderness wandering began and ended with water coming from a rock (see Numbers) the tradition arose that the rock followed them in the wilderness. Paul tells us, "the Rock was Christ" (1 Cor 10:4). This is not a stretch since we call God our Rock all of the time. Paul says that these examples were written down for us "for our instruction, on whom the end of the ages has come" (1 Cor 10:11). The lesson is that we should not grumble in our wilderness wandering but know "God is faithful, and he will not let you be tempted beyond your ability, but with the temptation he will also provide the way of escape, that you may be able to endure it (1 Cor 10:13). And this Paul ties into idolatry and the Lord's Supper. We are in the wilderness with one big difference -- we are not under God's wrath (compare Psalm 95 and the quote of Psalm 95:7ff in Hebrews 3:7ff).

The other part of this section shows us the contrast between the Amalekites and Jethro. In Exo 17:8, the Amalekites came and attacked but in Exo 18:5-7 Jethro comes and greets. In both Exo 17:9 and 18:25 men are chosen for a specific task. In Exo 17:12, Moses sits on a stone and in Exo 18:13 he sits to judge. Both activities are said to commence on the next day and last all day until evening (Exo 17:12; 18:13-14). And in both Exo 17:12 and 18:18 Moses is said to be tired, with help provided in each instance. See Enns commentary, 367).

The judgment of the LORD on the Amalekites is a total ban -- "Write this as a memorial in a book and recite it in the ears of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven" (Exo 17:14). See our comments on Genesis 36:12. Jethro blessed the LORD and showed that he had learned the lesson of the plagues and Exodus event saying, "Now I know that the LORD is greater than all gods" (Exo 18:11).

At this point Moses had to tell the people the law of God and how it applied to particular situations, he was deciding every case brought before him and Jethro saw that he would get burnt out quickly. So Jethro wisely suggested this: "warn them about the statutes and the laws, and make them know the way in which they must walk and what they must do" and then appoint judges (who "hate a bribe") to decide the easier cases (Exo 18:20-21). This is the climax of the transition to the giving of the law before they arrive at Sinai. The theme of testing Israel has carried the idea throughout this section.

The Exodus Event (11:1-15:21)

revmarple@hotmail.com (revmarple) — Sat, 04 Apr 2009 20:24:00 +0000

The plagues and the Exodus Event demonstrate the omnipotence of the true God over the people, livestock, and gods of Egypt. The LORD says, "For I will pass through the land of Egypt that night, and I will strike all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, both man and beast; and on all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgments: I am the LORD" (Exo 12:12). And God establishes a statute or ordinance -- the Passover meal. It will be one of the ordinary means of God's grace and salvation until the Passover lamb is slain on the cross. The Gospel of John even understands the fact that the instruction, "do not break any of the bones" (Exo 12:46) with Psalm 34:20 as the reason Christ did not have any bones broken (cf. John 19:36). It is this Passover lamb, who says, this is my body; this is my blood. Thus the Lord's Supper, derived from the Passover meal, is one of the ordinary means of God's grace and salvation today.

And we have an early example of catechizing children: "And when your children say to you, 'What do you mean by this service?' you shall say, 'It is the sacrifice of the LORD's Passover, for he passed over the houses of the people of Israel in Egypt, when he struck the Egyptians but spared our houses'" (Exo 12:26-27). And concerning the feast of unleavened bread, it says, "You shall tell your son on that day, 'It is because of what the LORD did for me when I came out of Egypt'" (Exo 13:8). This is something that also should continue today as the Lord Christ taught us to teach them to observe everything that he commanded (see Matt 28:20, Great Commission). Baptism being mentioned in the previous verse, what they are to observe especially includes the Lord's Supper. See Flavel's defense of catechizing in my first quotes of Flavel's Exposition of the Assemblies Catechism on this page.

We also see a glimpse of language that will be elaborated in the Shema (Deut 6:4-9) "And it shall be to you as a sign on your hand and a memorial between your eyes, that the law of the LORD may be in your mouth. For with a strong hand the LORD has brought you out of Egypt" (Exo 13:9). The catechizing continues, "And when in time to come your son asks you, 'What does this mean?' you shall say to him, 'By a strong hand the LORD brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery. For when Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, the LORD killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, both the firstborn of man and the firstborn of animals. Therefore I sacrifice to the LORD all the males that first open the womb, but all the firstborn of my sons I redeem'" (Exo 13:14-15). And the next verse continues the Shema-like language (Exo 13:16).

This Exodus account is very much a continuation of the narrative of Genesis and we see this in the comments fulfilling prophecies of Genesis. In particular, Genesis 15:13-16 says that the people will be "in a land that is not theirs and will be servants [we could say slaves] there" 400 years and come out with great possessions. Then we see Israel plunder Egypt (Exo 12:36) and it is noted that they had lived in Egypt for 430 years (Exo 12:40). And, as in Genesis 1:2, the Spirit hovered over them like He did the waters at creation in the form of the pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night (Exo 13:21-22, 14:24). And then we have the parting of the waters by the wind/Spirit to give way to dry land, also just as in Genesis 1:7-9. Israel is born (they even change their calendar to reflect this new creation (Exo 12:2). And thus how beautiful is the description, "Israel saw the great power that the LORD used against the Egyptians, so the people feared the LORD, and they believed in the LORD and in his servant Moses" (Exo 14:31).

And then we see the Song of Moses, which then Miriam takes up (the repetition of the first line implying that she led the people in singing the whole song too). She led the song, played the tambourine, and all the women danced. This is an interesting example of a prophetess leading worship and proclaiming the good news of salvation in the LORD. Anything that can be said, can be sung, and vice versa. This song was a type of proclamation -- a sermon in verse. And the lesson, fitting what we have said of the purpose of the plagues and the exodus event, is "Who is like you, O LORD, among the gods? Who is like you, majestic in holiness, awesome in glorious deeds, doing wonders?" (Exo 15:11). And the song foreshadows what will come to pass in the days (and unfortunately years) ahead, as it talks of the inhabitants of Canaan having melted away when they heard.

The principle of the firstborn in the exodus event is most critical in understanding how Jesus' death can cover our sins. It is worth saying that faith in God the Father and in his servant the Lord Christ is the Spirit wrought response of the one who is born again and that this application of salvation depends on the accomplishment of salvation in the death and resurrection of Christ as the firstborn of his people. And that given this accomplishment and application of salvation we too should have our tongues loosed (not because we are drunk, but because of the Spirit) to sing many new songs.

Though things end well, it is ominous that right before the Exodus event the people expressed such unbelief and grumbling saying, "It would have been better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the wilderness" (Exo 14:12). And Moses tells the people, to best translate the verse, to "Shut up" (Exo 14:14). This foreshadows the rest of the story of the Torah, beginning with the verses immediately following this section (Exo 15:22ff). And is in stark contrast to Jesus who remained silent when accused by the chief priests and elders of Israel rather than complaining.